1. Archaeological Sources:
The pioneer work on
archaeology was done by Europeans but the same is being carried on now by the
Indians. The study of Indian antiquities was initiated by scholars like Sir
William Jones who founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1774.
A large number of ancient
inscriptions were collected but those could not be deciphered on account of the
ignorance of the script but that difficulty was solved by Jones Prinsep in 1838 by his discovery of the Brahmin script.
After that discovery, the
task of deciphering the inscriptions became an easy one and a lot of work was
done by scholars like Fergusson, Cunningham, Dr. Rajendra Lal Mitra, and Dr.
Bhau Daji. The greatest contribution was made by General Cunningham who was
appointed in 1862 as the Archaeological
Surveyor to the Government. He devoted about half a century to the study of
ancient Indian history.
Lord Curzon set up a
separate Department of Archaeology and appointed Dr. Marshall as the
Director-General of Archaeology. With him were associated scholars like Dr.
Vogel, Dr. Stein, Dr. Bloch and Dr. Spooner.
A. Explorations:
The process of searching and
collecting objects, related to past, is known as exploration. Many sites which
resemble with the events and sites known from the literary sources have been
explored. The outcomes of these explorations such as inscriptions, monuments,
coins and other things have great importance in the process of knowing the
history of past. Therefore, exploration is an important historical source which
makes us aware of our ancestors.
B. Excavation:
Under the direction and
supervision of Dr. Marshall, the ancient sites of Taxila covering an area of
about 25 sq. miles were excavated
and a lot of useful information was collected. The ancient city of Pataliputra
was excavated by Dr. Spooner but much information could not be found on account
of water-logging.
Dr. Spooner also started the
excavation of the Buddhist sites of the Nalanda University and a lot of
material was secured within the next two decades. In 1922-23, R. D. Banerjee started the work of excavation at
Mohenjo-Daro in Sind. Work was also done at Harappa and the information got
from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro was collected together and Sir John Marshall
wrote his monumental work on the Indus Valley Civilization.
A lot of work-was done by
Aurel Stein in Baluchistan, Kashmir and Chinese Turkestan. N.G. Mazumdar and
Dr. Mackay also made their contribution to our knowledge of the Indus Valley
Civilization. A lot of archaeological work is being carried on at present in
various parts of India.
C. Epigraphy:
Inscriptions inscribed on
pillars, rocks, copper plates and wooden or stone tablets are called epigraphy.
These inscriptions tell us about such events that are not only quite
significant but also near to reality. Ashoka's inscriptions are important in
this respect.
D. Inscriptions:
As regards inscriptions,
they are of very great value. As they are engraved on stones and metals, they
cannot be tampered with without detection. Consequently, we can be sure while
using the material from inscriptions that they contain what was originally
written. While in the case of books, there is the possibility of interpolations
by known and unknown authors, which is not the case with inscriptions.
Their genuineness cannot be
doubted. The inscriptions also give us a correct idea of the method of writing
followed at a time when they were actually inscribed. The character of their
script also enables us to fix their approximate age. Location can also throw
some valuable light.
The difficulty of
deciphering inscriptions has been overcome in most of the cases although the
script of the Indus Valley still remains a mystery.
Information about
inscriptional sources whether obtained by exploration or by excavations are as
follows:
1. Religious and didactic inscriptions deal with
religious and moral matters. Possibly, some of the seals and tablets of the
Indus Valley were objects of worship and were not used as amulets. The
inscriptions of Asoka are the best specimen of the religious and didactic
inscriptions. The edicts of Asoka are appropriately called Dhamma-Lipi.
2. Ashoka's edicts are also a specimen of the
administrative inscriptions. An extract from one of his inscriptions reads
thus: "Everywhere in my dominions, the Yuktas, the Rajjukas and the
Pradesikas shall proceed on circuit every five years as well for this purpose
(for the instruction of Dhamma) as for other business."
3. The Sohgaura copper plate inscription of the third
century B.C. is an example of pure administrative inscription.
4. The Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman I also
contains administrative material.
5. A large number of copper plate inscriptions have been
found both in the north and south and they contain many useful administrative
details. Reference may be made in this connection to the Banskhera copper plate
inscription of Harsha.
6. As regards the eulogistic inscriptions (Prasastis),
they are very important from the political point of view. Generally, they
contain the name and genealogy of the ruler concerned, the earlier career of
the King, his military, political and administrative achievements, the
existence of contemporary States coming into conflict with him and the
inter-state relations, the administrative system, the political ideals, the
personal accomplishments of the King, his patronage, munificence and charity
and mythological or Puranic allusions by way of comparison and similes. The one
great difficulty in these inscriptions is that there is a tendency on the part
of the authors to exaggerate the achievements of their patrons.
7. Eulogistic inscriptions can be sub-divided into two
parts: pure eulogy and eulogy mixed with other types.
8. The edicts of Ashoka form a category by themselves.
9. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga
belongs to the category of pure eulogy. It describes in detail the achievements
of Kharavela in a chronological order. To the same category belongs the
Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta.
10. The number of inscriptions which contain eulogy mixed
with other matter is very large. In practically every document of a permanent
nature, reference is made to the glories of the ruling sovereign and his
ancestors.
11. Important specimens of the mixed type are to be found
in the Nasik Cave Inscription of Usavadata, the Junagadh Rock Inscription of
Rudradaman I, the Nasik Cave Inscription of Gautami Balasri, the Mehrauli Iron
Pillar Inscription of Chandra, Junagadh Rock Inscription of Skandgupta, the
Bhitari Stone Pillar Inscription of Skandgupta, the Mandasor Stone Pillar
Inscription of Yasodharman, the Stone Inscription of Isanvarman, the Aihole
Stone Inscription of the time of Pulakesin II, the Talagunda Stone Pillar
Inscription of the time of Santivarman, the Nagarjunikonda Inscriptions of Virapurusdatta,
Mandasor Stone Inscription of the time of Kumargupta and Bandhuvarman, etc.
12. We have a large number of votive or dedicative
inscriptions. It is possible that some of the tablets found in the Indus Valley
contain votive inscriptions.
13. The piprahwa Vase Inscription records the dedication
of the relic casket of Lord Buddha. The Besnagar Garuda Pillar Inscription of
Helidoros also belongs to this category.
14. Many of the dedicative inscriptions deal with the
installation of images and the construction of temples. Reference may be made
in this connection to the Mandasor Inscription of the time of Kumargupta II and
Bandhuvarman and the Bhitari Pillar Inscription of Skandgupta and the Aihole
Inscription of the time of Pulakesin II.
15. The number of donative inscriptions is very large as
many occasions offered themselves for this purpose to the ruler and the
subjects.
16. Some of the inscriptions refer to the donations of
caves or other buildings for the residence of monks and ascetics. Some refer to
the donation of money in the form of a permanent endowment. Out of these funds,
the Brahmans and the needy were fed, lamps were lighted in the temples, etc.
17. In some inscriptions, there is a reference to the
donation of lands and villages to the monasteries, educational institutions and
the Brahmanas.
18. Commemorative inscriptions record such events as
birth, death or other important events.
19. The Rummindei Inscription of Asoka reads thus:
"King Priyadarsin, beloved of the gods, when he had been consecrated many
years, came in person and did worship. Because here the Sakya sage, Buddha, was
born, he caused a huge stone wall to be made and a stone pillar to be
erected."
20. A large number of commemorative inscriptions refer to
the Silaharas of Kohlapur, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Rashtrakutas, the
Yadavas, etc.
21. Some inscriptions contain poetic compositions and
dramatic works and their purpose is primarily literary. From the Mahanirvana
Stupa at Kusinagara in Uttar Pradesh was discovered copper plate containing 13 lines and recording the Udana-Sutta of Buddha.
22. Inscriptions have been found on stone and copper
plates and other materials. Ashoka tells us that he got his edicts engraved on
stone so that they may last for a long time. Writings on stone were on rocks,
pillars, slabs, pedestal or the back of images, rims and lids of vases,
caskets, etc., prisms of crystal, walls of temples, pavements of pillars of
colonnades, caves, etc.
23. Copper was the material which was commonly used for
the writing of inscriptions.
24. An inscription copper-plated was called Tamrapata,
Tamrapattra, Tamrasasana, Sasanapattra or Danapattra according to its contents.
25. It is remarkable to note that land-grants were
invariably inscribed on copper plates and were handed over to the donee so that
they may serve as title-deeds.
26. Fahien tells us that he found in many Buddhist
monasteries copper plates which referred to the grants of land. Some of them
were as old as the time of Buddha. The discovery of the Sohgaura copper plate
of the Mauryan period confirms this statement of Fahien.
27. Hieun Tsang tells us that Kanishka summoned a Buddhist
Council which prepared three commentaries and those commentaries were engraved
on copper plates and kept in stone caskets which were placed in the Stupas
built over them.
28. It is also stated that the commentaries of Sayana on
the Vedas were engraved on copper. Some specimens of books inscribed on copper
plates are to be found in the British Museum.
29. The use of copper for writing purposes was not very
common up to the sixth century A.D. but it was quite popular for the next six
centuries.
30. Copper plates were of different sizes and thickness.
Some of them were so thin that they could be bent easily and there were others
which were very thick and heavy. The size of a copper plate depended upon the
contents of the document and the size of the commonly used writing material in
the district where the copper plate was issued.
31. Sometimes a document was inscribed not on one copper
plate but on very many and in that case the copper plates were fastened
together by means of copper rings. In this way, the copper plates looked like a
book which could be opened easily. Sufficient margin was left on the copper
plates.
E. Numismatics:
A study of the Indian coins
enlightens us a great deal regarding the history of ancient India. The
Numismatic Society of India is doing a lot of useful work in this connection.
We have at present a large number of coins found from various parts of India
and dealing with the different aspects of ancient Indian history. Coins are of
various metals: gold, silver and copper.
Importance of Coins:
Coins help us to build up
the history of the country in many ways. They give us the names of the kings
who ruled at various times in different parts of the country. In many cases,
the coins are the only information we have regarding the existence of certain
kings. Without those coins, the very existence of those kings would have
remained unknown.
Many a time, the information
from the coins can be used to corroborate the evidence from other sources such
as the Puranas, etc. The coins also help us to fix up the chronology. Coins
mention the year in which they are issued.
The existence of a large
number of coins issued during the different years of the reign of a king helps
us to fix the exact dates for the accession and the death of the king. Coins
have helped us to fix the dates of Samudragupta.
The location of coins helps
us to determine the extent of the territory of a king. The discovery of a large
number of Roman coins in India confirms the fact that there was a brisk trade
between India and the Roman Empire.
That also refers to the
economic prosperity of India and the sea-going activities of its people. The
figures of the various kings appear on coins and from them we can have an idea
regarding the head-dress of those kings. Sometimes, the hobbies or the
amusements of the rulers can also be known from a study of their coins.
Coins give an indication of
the prosperity or otherwise of the country. If people have gold or silver
coins, they are likely to be prosperous. The case is otherwise if they have
copper coins alone or more of them than those of gold or silver.
Sometimes, the depreciation
of coinage gives an indication that the country was passing through abnormal
times. During the Huna invasion of India, the Gupta currency depreciated. The
symbols on the Gupta coinage refer to their zeal for Hinduism.
The coins give us genuine
information regarding the history of ancient India as there is no possibility
of their being tampered with. Coins were issued by the rulers and other
authorities like Srenis, etc., and there is no possibility of their being
issued merely to deceive people.
The Earliest Indian Coins:
The earliest coins of India
have only figures, devices or symbols and no legends. Sometimes, the coins were
cast in dies but very often symbols were punched on pieces of metals. The
symbols varied from time to time and were punched with a view to guarantee
their genuineness and value. On account of the absence of legends on them, much
information is not available.
Indian Coins after the Greek
Invasion:
After the Greek invasion of
India, the practice of writing the names of the kings on the coins was started.
A large number of coins were issued by the Indo-Bactrian rulers who had under
their control the Punjab and the North-Western Frontier. These coins possess a
high degree of artistic excellence and ultimately had a tremendous influence on
Indian coinage.
The thing borrowed in the
Indian coinage was the name and the portrait of the ruler. The Greek coins
refer to about 30
Greek kings and queens who ruled in India. The classical writers refer to only
four or five of them and in the absence of these coins, the names other rulers
would have remained absolutely unknown.
The coins of the Scythians
and Parthians are of inferior quality but they also give us a lot of historical
information. Their coins have enabled us to have an outline of the history of
their rulers and without them even the outlines would have been missing. A
branch of the Scythians settled in Gujarat and Kathiawar and they issued coins
in which the names of the ruling kings and their fathers were mentioned in the
Saka era.
These coins have helped us
to reconstruct the history of the Western Satraps for more than three
centuries. The Kushans also issued a large number of coins. The existence of
the Malavas, Yaudheyas and the Mitra rulers of Panchala is known only from the
coins. The coins of the Satavahanas supplement, correct and corroborate the
accounts of the Puranas.
The Gupta coins also give us
a lot of useful information. The coins of Samudragupta are particularly
remarkable and a detailed description of them will be given in their proper
place. The Indian coins after the Gupta period do not give us much historical
information.
Punch-Marked Coins:
According to V.A. Smith and
Rapson, the punch-marked coins represent a private coinage. The view of Smith
is that they were issued by guilds and goldsmiths with the permission of the
ruling power. The numerous obverse punches were made by different moneyers
through whose hands those coins passed. The reverse marks were the signs of
approval by the controlling authority.
According to Rapson, the
obverse marks were the private marks of the money-changers and the reverse
marks denoted locality in which the coins were issued. However, recent
researches have proved that the punch- marked coins were issued by a regular
public authority. A few of them found at pataliputra have been ascribed by Dr.
K.P Jayaswal to the age of Chandragupta Maurya.
A large number of coins are
to be found in the Government museums and municipal museums and the private
collectors. A critical study of all of them is bound to give a lot of
additional evidence.
F. Monuments:
The ancient monuments like
buildings, statues of stones or metals, terra-cotta, ornamental and decorative
fragments, pottery, etc., give us a lot of useful and reliable information. The
excavation of the sites of the old towns like, Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Taxila
has given us a lot of information hitherto unknown and changed our conception
of the history of ancient India.
It is after the discovery of
the Indus Valley Civilization that we began to talk of a civilization in India
prior to that of the Aryans. The excavations at Taxila throw welcome light on
the Kushans. A study of the sculptures found from there gives us an idea of the
Gandhara School of art.
The digging of the old sites
of Pataliputra gives us some information regarding the old capital of the
Mauryas. The Angkor-Vat in Cambodia and Borobodur in Java bear testimony to the
colonial and cultural activities of the Indians in ancient times. The temples
of Deogadh in Jhansi and Bhitargaon near Kanpur throw light on the artistic
activities of the Guptas.
The excavations at Sarnath
have added to our knowledge regarding Buddhism and Ashoka. The excavations in
Chinese Turkestan and Baluchistan by Stein prove the intimate contacts of India
with those territories. The progress of archaeological work in Indian in future
is bound to enrich our knowledge of ancient Indian history.
2. Literary Sources:
Primary and Secondary:
Literary sources are of two
kinds-primary and secondary. Primary sources are those literary works which
provide direct evidence of the event. Primary sources are contemporary to the
occurrence of the event. While, secondary sources had been written after the
event occurred. They took the help of other sources in expressing any event.
Problems of Dating:
Sometimes difficulties occur
during dating any past event.
Following are the reasons
behind the rise of these difficulties:
1. Different literary works provide different
chronological order for the same dynasty and its rulers.
2. Maximum literary works are fictitious stories and are
aimed to provide rather entertainment than historical knowledge.
3. Many inscriptions and scripts were disturbed many
times by various victorious rulers. This causes problems in identifying their
names and chronology.
4. Myths and tale stories also provide some historical
materials. But these myths and tale-telling are superficial, and hence are not
reliable.
Myths:
It includes the Puranas
which are the most important source under this category. There are 18 Puranas, each divided into five sections. The fifth
section deals with the genealogical charts of the various dynasties of the
Aryan and non-Aryan rulers. The Puranic legends are interwoven with fancy and
fiction. The Buddhist traditions are incorporated in the 'Dipvamsha' and the
Legends:
Some information about
ancient India can be derived from tribal legends as well. However, in
estimating the value of tribal legends for purposes of history it is desirable
to enquire whether the legends are uniform or multiform, whether any trace of
modification is discernible since they were first reported, and whether they
are generally accepted as true by the tribe.
It is also necessary to
scrutinise carefully the qualifications of those who reported them, to inquire
how far they were competent to understand with precision the language of their
informants, avoid the danger of voluntary suggestion and to receive the
impression like a photographic plate without preconception or bias.
If the records of the
tradition of a tribe can stand these tests, they obviously possess great value.
If they fail, their value is diminished or entirely disappears. Tribal legends
are of great value in constructing the history of Karkakhanda (Chotanagpur)
although no separate literature on the tribal legends exists.
Religious Literature:
This includes religious
texts of Hindus, Buddhists and Jains.
1. Hindu religious texts:
The first literary sources
of Hindus are Samhitas which include four Vedas- The Rig-Veda, the Sam-Veda,
the Yajur-veda and the Atharva-veda. Beside these are the Brahmans(the
Satapatha, Panchavis, Aitreya etc.) the Upanishads (the Kathaka, the Isa, the
Svetasvatra etc.) the Aranyakas, the Sutras (the Dharm-Sutra, the Graha-Sutra
etc.) the Smiritis (the Manu, the Vishnu, the Narad, the Briahaspati etc.), the
Puranas (the Vishnu, the Vayu etc. 18 in all) and the Epics (the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata) which throw light mostly on the history and culture of India from
the Vedic up to Gupta age.
2. Buddhist religious texts:
The main body of the
Buddhist religious literature is known as Tripitaka, consisting of Vinaya,
Sutta and Abhidhamma Pitakas. They deal with monastic discipline, doctrines
and philosophy of Buddhism respectively.
The Buddhist Jatakas or
stories (over five hundred such stories are published) contain references to
political, social, economic and religious conditions of early India.
The stone walls around the
Stupas at Barhut and Sanchi carry reliefs to Jataka stories. The Milinda Panha,
"Questions of King Milinda" to Buddhist priest, Nagasena and the
commentaries of Buddhaghosha, Ananda and Dhammapala along with others,
constitute the fundamental sources for the study of Buddhism and contemporary
civilization.
3. Jaina religious texts:
The religious books of the
Jainas also refer to historical persons and incidents. The Jaina texts were
written in Prakrit and were finally complied in the sixth century A.D. in
Valabhi in Gujarat.
They however contain many
passages which help us to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar in the age of Mahavira. The Jaina texts refer repeatedly to
trade and traders.
Secular and Historical
Literature:
Arthashastra of Kautilya
gives us information about administration and diplomacy during Chandragupta
Maurya's time. Vishakhadattes play "Mudrarakshas" gives us
information about the usurpation of power by Chandragupta Maurya with the help
of Chanakya. Kalidasa's plays give us information about Gupta period of Ancient
Indian history.
This charge is brought on
the Ancient Indians that they had no historical innovation. It is true that
they did not write chronological history like ancient Greeks but still some
historical works are available which contribute towards the reconstruction of
Ancient Indian history.
In the 7th century A.D. Banabhatta wrote the Harshacharitam
which gives us information about Harsha's court, his life and the contemporary
social and religious life. From Kalhan's Rajtarangini we get information about
the history of Kashmir.
In reality this is the first
work having many of the characteristics of a historical work. In the
Ramacharita of Sandhyakar Nandi we find a description of the struggle between
Pala ruler, Rampal and the peasants in which the king was victorious.
Similarly there are other
works which reveal information about Ancient social, political and economic
conditions. Sangam literature is also very important as a literary source of
ancient Indian history. Sangam literature means those literary writings which
were composed in the literary assemblies taking place in the courts of South
Indian kings.
This oldest material is in
Tamil language. The kings extended their patronage to various centres of
learning and got this material written in about 300-400 years. It continued till the 4th-6th centuries of Christ. Sangam literature is a valuable
source of information for the study of social, political and economic life of
the people of South India. It also gives us information about Pandya, Pallava,
Chalukya, Chola and Chera dynasties.
3. Foreign Accounts:
Indigenous literature can be
supplemented by foreign accounts. To this class belong the works of the Greeks,
Romans, Chinese and Muslims.
1. Description left by Greek
and Roman Travellers:
Scholars have divided them
into 3 categories
(i) Prior to Alexander,
(ii) Contemporary of Alexander and
(iii) Later than Alexander.
In the first category the
name of Herodotus (424-431 B.C.) is more important. He has written much about India and the
Indians. According to him "The Indians are by far the greatest multitude
of all the people of men whom we know." Skylex was a navigator and Emperor
Darius had sent him to explore the Indus.
The historians, who
accompanied Alexander, were Nearchus, Aristobulus, Onesciritus, Clitarchus,
etc. They have also left an account of the people of India of those days. The
third category comprises the writings of the Ambassadors who came to the courts
of Indian rulers, such as Megasthenes, Dyonisis and Deimachos.
Of them all Megasthenes is
the most important writer. Unfortunately the original version of his work is
not available, but it has played an important part in reconstructing Ancient
Indian history through its references contained in other works.
This work tells us not only
about the Mauryan administration but also about social classes and economic
life during the Mauryan period. The Indika, as not free from credulity and
exaggerations, but this is true of many other ancient accounts.
Last but not the least is
the later Greek and Roman writers like Strabo, Diodoras, Arrian, Pliny, Ptolemy
etc. These writers were more rational and highly critical and their accounts
are of immense value for the early history of India.
Greek and Roman accounts of
the first and second centuries A.D. mention many Indian ports and enumerate
items of trade between India and the Roman Empire. The Periplus of the
Erythrean Sea and Ptolemy's Geography, both written in Greek, provide valuable
data for the study of ancient geography and commerce.
The data ascribed to the
first ranges between A.D. 80
and 115, while the second is
attributed to about A.D. 150. Pliny's Naturalis Historia, which belongs to the first century A.D. was
written in Latin and tells us about trade between India and Italy.
2. Chinese Travellers:
The four notable Chinese
travellers to India are Fa-Hien, Sungyun, Hiuen- Tsang and I-tsing. Fa-Hien
started from China in 399
A.D. He entered India from the north-western side and left it in 413 A. D. at Tamralipti. From here he reached China via
Ceylon, Java and Sumatra. He also stayed in the Capital of Chandragupta
Vikramdhitya. His accounts throw a flood of light on the political, social,
economic and religious conditions of India under Chandra Gupta II.
In his accounts Fa-Hien also
praises the administrative machinery under the Guptas. As regards religion he
says that the Guptas followed a policy of religious toleration and Buddhism was
in a prospering state. Sungyun had come to India around 518 A.D. His accounts also throw light on contemporary
Indian political, social and religious conditions. Hiuen-Tsang came to India in
629 A.D. in the time of Harsha
Vardhan.
He enjoyed the patronage of
King Harsha Vardhan. He wrote a book called 'Si-Yu-Ki.' This work contains a
vivid description of the religious assemblies of Harsha, his liberality and
contemporary Indian socio-religious and political situation. His account is
worth mentioning also from the point of view of his reference to Ancient Indian
educational system and ancient Indian customs and practices.
I-Tsung came to India
towards the end of the 7th
century. He stayed for a long time in the Universities of Vikrarmadhitya and
Nalanda. His travel accounts throw light on the decline of Nalanda and
Vikramadhitya universities and contemporary situation.
There are two major
drawbacks in the Chinese Travellers accounts. They are written from a Buddhist
point of view on account of their extreme faith in Buddhism and secondly non-
religious aspects have been specially neglected by Fa-Hien and I-Tsung.
3. Tibetan Historian Taranath:
Tibetan scholar Taranath has
written the work 'History of Buddhism'. This also throws light on ancient
Indian history. Actually his account is specially useful for the history of
post-mauryan period. Without it our information about the Shakas, Parthians and
Kushanas would have been incomplete.
4. Muslim Sources.
The work of Alberuni,
"Tehqiq-i-Hind"\s very valuable for giving us an account of Hindu
manner, science and literature. He came in the time of Mahmud of Ghazni, rather
accompanied him and gives political conditions of India in the 10th and 11th centuries A.D. Being himself well-versed in
Sanskrit language, Hindu social and religious customs, his book is of special
significance.
After Alberuni the other
later Muslim writers which are worth mentioning, are Ibn-Batuta, Al-Masudi,
Nizamudd in and Hasan-Nizami. The Venetian traveller, Macro Polo, passed
through some parts of South India on his way from China to Persia between A.D. 1292 and 1294, and has left a very interesting account of the
social manners and customs of South India.
