वर्षा जल संग्रहण

वर्षा जल संग्रहण क्‍या है ?

वर्षा के पानी का बाद में उत्‍पादक कामों में इस्‍तेमाल के लिए इकट्ठा करने को वर्षा जल संग्रहण कहा जाता है। आपकी छत पर गिर रहे बारिश के पानी को सामान्‍य तरीके से इकट्ठा कर उसे शुद्ध बनाने का काम वर्षा जल का संग्रहण कहलाता है।

आज अच्‍छी गुणवत्‍ता वाले पानी की कमी चिंता का एक बड़ा कारण बन गई है। हालांकि, शुद्ध और अच्‍छी गुणवत्‍ता वाला वर्षा जल जल्‍द ही बह जाता है।

वर्षा जल संग्रहण के लाभ:

·        भूजल या नगरपालिका के जल कनेक्‍शन से होने वाले पानी की सप्‍लाई जैसे अन्‍य स्रोतों का यह पूरक हो सकना

·        जिन क्षेत्रों में पानी का अन्‍य कोई स्रोत न हो, वहां निर्माण या खेती कार्य किया जा सकता है

·        उच्‍च गुणवत्‍ता जल- शुद्ध, रसायन मुक्‍त होता है

·        जलापूर्ति की कम लागत

·        बाढ़ के वेग को कम कर मृदा अपरदन को कम करता है

वर्षा जल संग्रहण सबसे उपयुक्‍त होता है, जहां...

·        भूजल कम है

·        भूजल दूषित है

·        जमीन विषम या पर्वतीय हो

·        भूकम्‍प या बाढ़ सम्‍बन्‍धी घटनाएं आम हों

·        लवण युक्‍त पानी की आवाजाही जल में खतरनाक स्‍तर तक हो

·        जनसंख्‍या घनत्‍व कम हो

·        बिजली और पानी के दाम बढ़ रहे हों

·        पानी बहुत खारा हो या उसमें खनिज अधिक हों

वर्षा जल का इस्‍तेमाल किया जा सकता है :

·        पीने, खाना पकाने या नहाने के लिए (फिल्‍टर वाली गुणवत्‍ता)

·        शौच के लिए

·        कपड़े धोने के लिए

·        सिंचाई के लिए

·        मवेशियों की जरूरतों के लिए

किसी भी वर्षा जल संग्रहण व्‍यवस्‍था के लिए तीन घटक होते हैं: जल-ग्रहण, ढुलाई और संग्रहण। वर्षा जल संग्रहण व्‍यवस्‍था के दो प्रकार हैं-

·        व्‍यवस्‍था जिसमें घर की छत पर, घर के इस्‍तेमाल के लिए पानी इकट्ठा किया जाता है।

·        व्‍यवस्‍था जिसमें फसल की सिंचाई के लिए अतिरिक्‍त पानी खेत या किसी पास के स्‍थान पर इकट्ठा किया जाता है।

वर्षा जल संग्रहण व्‍यवस्‍था के छह आधारभूत तत्‍वों में शामिल हैं :

·        जलग्रहण: वर्षा का पानी इकट्ठा करने के लिए छत का क्षेत्र

·        ढुलाई: छत से पाइप या संग्रहण के लिए जल-ग्रहण की व्‍यवस्‍था

·        छत की धुलाई: गंदगी हटाने और फिल्‍टर के काम के लिए डाइवर्टर को शुरू करें

·        संग्रहण: टंकी या गड्ढा जहां वर्षा का सुरक्षित पानी इकट्ठा किया जाता है जो कीटमुक्‍त हो

·        शुद्धीकरण: पानी को छानना या ओजोन व पराबैगनी किरणों से साफ करना जिससे पीने में इस्‍तेमाल किया जा सके

·        वितरण: ऐसी व्‍यवस्‍था जो वर्षा का पानी वितरित करती है, सामान्‍यत: उसमें एक छोटा पम्‍प और प्रेशर टैंक शामिल होता है।

ग्रामीण क्षेत्रों में वर्षा जल संग्रहण :

गांव में कुछ स्‍थानों में सामुदायिक कुओं का निर्माण करें। 10 से 20 फीट की गहराई में कुंए में एक हाथ से चलने वाले पम्‍प का इस्‍तेमाल करते हुए खुदाई करें। गांव वालों को कुंए के आसपास के क्षेत्र को और बोर वेल को साफ रखने के लिए बताएं- उसके आसपास किसी चीज की धुलाई नहीं होनी चाहिए जैसे, स्‍नान, पशु, मोटर साइकिल, कपड़ों की धुलाई और शौच के लिए भी उस स्‍थान को इस्‍तेमाल नहीं किया जाना चाहिए।

·        यदि गांव में तालाब हों, तो प्रत्‍येक तीन साल पर उनकी सफाई करें।

·        यदि गांव में कोई छोटी नदी या सोता हो, तो चेक बांध बनाएं ताकि वर्षा जल को रोक कर उसे इस्‍तेमाल किया जा सके।

·        छत पर पानी का संग्रहण करें।

·        ग्रामीण स्‍कूलों की छतों पर वर्षा जल संग्रहण

भारत के रेगिस्‍तानी इलाकों में हजारों वर्षों से जो तकनीक अपनाई जा रही है वह है, छतों पर वर्षा जल संग्रहण, जो सबसे कम लागत वाली प्रणाली है। दो दशकों से अधिक समय से बेयरफुट कॉलेज स्‍कूलों की छतों से भूमि के भीतर गड्ढों में पानी को संग्रहित कर 15 राज्‍यों के सुदूर ग्रामीण स्‍कूलों में लगभग 3.2 करोड़ लोगों को पीने का पानी उपलब्‍ध करा रहा है।

सुदूर गांवों में जहां पीने का पानी एक बड़ी समस्‍या है, वर्षा जल संग्रहण ढांचे के दो उद्देश्‍य होते हैं :

• पीने के पानी का एक स्रोत, खासकर सूखे मौसम के दौरान, 4 से 5 महीने।
• साल भर पानी की उपलब्‍धता से स्‍वास्‍थ्‍य और स्‍वच्‍छता में बेहतरी, उदाहरण के तौर पर कम फ्लश वाले सार्वजनिक शौचालय।

स्‍कूल के लिए वर्षा जल संग्रहण (आरडब्‍ल्‍यूएच) परियोजना

स्‍कूल में वर्षा जल संग्रहण तालाब

आर.डब्‍ल्‍यू.एच तंत्र का निर्माण आर.डब्‍ल्‍यू.एच व्‍यवस्‍था के निर्माण से पहले यह जरूरी है कि सूचना इकट्ठी कर उन स्‍कूलों की सूची बनाई जाए जहां पानी की कमी है, गांव में मौजूद जल स्रोत क्‍या हैं, गांव में मिट्टी की किस्‍म क्‍या है और आर.डब्‍ल्‍यू.एच द्वारा लिया जाने वाला छत का क्षेत्रफल कितना है।

वर्षा जल संग्रहण के लिए भूमि में गड्ढे क्‍यों बनाये जाते हैं ?

·        सिर्फ एक भूमिगत टैंक जो चूने या स्‍थानीय सामग्री से बना हो, अगले मौसम तक बारिश के पानी को ताजा रख सकता है

·        यह जल संग्रहण का प्राकृतिक साधन है जिससे गर्मी में ठंडा और सर्दी में गर्म पानी मिलता है

·        भूमिगत टैंक ज्‍यादा टिकाऊ होते हैं जिनके रखरखाव की जरूरत नहीं पड़ती

टैंक कहां हो ?

·        टैंक को मुख्‍य भवन के करीब होना चाहिए जिससे कि वह स्‍कूली बच्‍चों की पहुंच में हो

·        भवन से टैंक की दूरी क्षेत्रफल पर निर्भर करती है: कठोर जमीन पर तीन से पांच फीट और आमतौर पर दस फीट से ज्‍यादा दूर

·        पानी रूकने के खतरे से बचने के लिए छोटी पाइपों का इस्‍तेमाल किया जाना चाहिए। छत के ऊपरी हिस्‍से को टैंक से जोड़ने के लिए मोटे व्‍यास वाली पाइप का इस्‍तेमाल किया जाना चाहिए, जो कम से कम चार इंच की हो

·        यदि जमीन कठोर है, तो ज्‍यादा गहरा गड्ढा खोदने की कोशिश न करें। एक टैंक इस तरह बनारया जा सकता है कि वह जमीन की सतह से एक तिहाई ऊपर हो और दो तिहाई नीचे

निर्माण के लिए सामग्री

·        स्‍थानीय निर्माण सामग्री (ईंट/पत्‍थर)

·        चूना/सीमेंट

·        वाटर प्रूफ पाउडर (जिप्‍सम)

·        रेत

·        छत की सामग्री (फेरो सीमेंट/बलुआ पटिया), क्षेत्र पर निर्भर

तालाब की आकृति

तालाब की आकृति वहां की मिट्टी के स्‍वरूप पर निर्भर करती है। तालाबों का पारंपरिक डिजाइन आयताकार या बेलनाकार होता है। कठोर जमीन वाले क्षेत्र के लिए आयताकार तालाब अच्‍छा होता है। यह तकनीक सामान्‍य है: एक गड्ढा खोदें और स्‍थानीय पत्‍थरों से बनी छत से उसे ढक दें। सर्दियों में इस छत का इस्‍तेमाल कक्षाएं लगाने या स्‍कूल के मंच के रूप में हो सकता है।  

रेगिस्‍तानी क्षेत्रों के लिए बेलनाकार आकृति ठीक होती है। थार रेगिस्‍तान के ग्रामीण समुदायों के पास जल ढांचों की पारंपरिक और किफायती निर्माण तकनीक का ज्ञान मौजूद है। य‍ह अविश्‍वसनीय, लेकिन सच है कि स्‍थानीय ग्रामीण मिस्‍त्री और कारीगर स्‍थानीय सामग्री का इस्‍तेमाल कर 100 मीटर गहरे कुएं और बेलनाकार तालाब का निर्माण कर सकते हैं। ऐसे बेलनाकार तालाब बनाना प्रशिक्षित सिविल इंजीनियरों के लिए भी चुनौती है।

जल के भूगर्भीय स्रोतों पर तथ्‍य :

·        एक कुआं पानी के संग्रहण के लिए नहीं होता है। कुआं भू-जल स्रोत को सतह से जोड़ता है। बरसात के मौसम में भू-जल की उपलब्‍धता के आधार पर कुंए में पानी का स्‍तर ऊपर और नीचे जाता है।

·        बारिश खत्‍म होने के लंबे समय बाद भी कुएं में पानी भू-जल स्रोत से रिस कर आता है।

·        आप बोर वेल से जहां पानी प्राप्‍त करते हैं, निश्चित है कि वहां जमीन के भीतर बारिश का पानी रिस कर गया रहा होगा

·        हरेक बोर वेल आज नहीं तो कल सूख जाएगा

·        बोर वेल का उल्‍टा इस्‍तेमाल करें। एक सूखे हुए बोर वेल से भू-जल को ताजा करने की कोशिश करें। इसके लिए उसके ऊपर पानी रिसने के लिए गड्ढा बनाना होगा

PARIVARIK MAHILA LOK ADALATS (PMLA)

The National Commission for Women (NCW) has evolved the concept of Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalat, which in turn supplements the efforts of the District Legal Service Authority (DLSA) for redressal and speedy disposal of the matters pending in various courts related to marriage and family affairs.

 Objectives of Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalat:

● To provide speedy and cost free dispensation of justice to women.

● To generate awareness among the public regarding conciliatory mode of dispute settlement.

● To gear up the process of organizing the Lok Adalats and to encourage the public to settle their disputes outside the formal set-up.

● To empower public especially women to participate in justice delivery mechanism.

The Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalat functions on the model of the Lok Adalat. The Commission provides financial assistance to NGOs or State Women Commissions or State Legal Service Authority to organize the Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalat.

Benefits of Lok Adalat

● Cases are amicably settled by the parties in a harmonious atmosphere.

● It saves time, effort and expenses.

●Long pending disputes in the courts can be settled through the Lok Adalat expeditiously.

● Copies of decisions of the Lok Adalat are given to the parties free of cost.

● The decision of the Lok Adalt is final and there is no appeal  against the same.

Validity of Award of Lok Adalat

● Under the Legal Service Authority Act, 1987, the decisions of the Lok Adalat have legal validity.

● The award of the Lok Adalat has the same force as a decree of the Court of Law.

● The decisions of the Lok Adalat are based on terms of mutual consent of the parties.

● The decisions of the Lok Adalat are binding on the parties.

How to Organise PMLA?

● The NGOs approach the DLSA or District Judge and collect information about pending cases of family disputes within the district.

● The DLSA selects women related cases which are admissible in the Lok Adalat, and makes relevant files/case papers available to the NGOs.

● It is expected that minimum 60 cases shall be taken up for handling in PMLA.

● NGOs should take written permission from DLSA to do the counselling in selected cases.

● The NGOs, through their counsellors should approach the parties and start counselling prior to the date of the PMLA to bring them to a compromise or settlement.

● The NGOs will organise PMLA on the specified date on which the cases will be brought up for settlement.

● If necessary, the NGOs may approach the DLSA to summon the parties.

● The settlement should be noted down on paper in each case and the signatures of both the parties must be obtained on the document which will be presented before PMLA for its legal authentication.

● At least 40% of the cases received from DLSA must be disposed of on the date of PMLA.

● The NGOs should approach the District Judge to appoint a Presiding Officer, for the PMLA, who should be a Judge and two or more members who can be judges, advocates or social activists.

● The Venue of the PMLA should be a suitable central place convenient to the panelists as well as the parties and preferably premises other than a Court Room.

● NGOs should ensure the presence of compromising parties on the date of PMLA.

● The panel will authenticate the settlement on the date of PMLA.

● Court decree will be issued as per the settlement and will be legally binding on both the parties.

● The settled cases will be withdrawn from the dealing courts.

● NGOs should invite media publicity.

● NGOs shall not charge any fee from the parties.

 Role of Counselling

 An important aspect of PMLA is to give patient hearing to the parties in an informal manner. Counselling plays a crucial role in settling a case. The Counsellors are required to assist the PMLA in the delivery of justice. They play positive and constructive role in the settlement of disputes. In the process the Counsellors have to win the confidence of both the parties. Normally the suffering parties open up before the Counsellors to sort out their disputes and even other problems. Though it is a time taking process, it is an important tool to bring the parties to an amicable settlement and resolve the disputes. The counsellors should be qualified and have experience to promote the settlement of disputes between the parties through conciliation and counselling. Counsellors should also have good skill of

making report of settlement as Presiding Officer relies on their report.

 Financial Assistance

 The Commission provides financial assistance limited to Rs. 30,000/- (Rupees Thirty thousand only) to NGOs to organise the PMLA.

The item-wise ceiling for incurring expenditure is given below:

a) Printing of Banners, Posters and Handbills Rs. 5,000/-

b) Photography Rs. 1,000/-

c) Tea/Working Lunch Rs. 800/-

(Hospitality should be as per GOI norms of Rs. 5/- per person for Tea and Rs. 50/- per Person for Working Lunch)

d) Vehicle charges (not more than 15 days) Rs. 6,000/

e) Honorarium to Counsellors Rs. 7,500/-

f) TA/DA to NGOs etc Rs. 3,000/-

g) Refreshment etc prior to holding PMLA Rs. 4,000/-

(Hospitality should be as per GOI norms of Rs. 5/- per person for Tea and Rs. 50/- per person for Working Lunch)

h) Miscellaneous Rs. 2,700/-

For the North- Eastern States the financial assistance shall be of amount not exceeding Rs. 40,000/-.

 Organisations Eligible for Assistance

 Any voluntary organisation registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 or State Women Commission or DLSA jointly with NGOs/ Educational Institutions can apply in the prescribed Format

with the following documents for financial assistance to hold PMLA:

i) Certified copy of Registration.

ii) Certified copy of Memorandum & Articles of Association with latest composition of the Boards.

iii) Certified copy of Audited Statement of Accounts for the last three years.

iv) Annual Report for the last 3 years (Requirement of documents at (i) to (iv) is dispensed with in the case of State Commission for Women and Government bodies.)

v) Documents giving details of past experiences of:

● Counselling and

● Women related programmes.

vi) Written permission from the District Judge/DLSA with the list of cases.

vii) The tentative date/month for organising the PMLA (in consultation with the District Judge/ DLSA).

viii) The details of assistance received or likely to be available from other sources including DLSA, Local Authorities, Voluntary Organizations and other Institutions.

 Terms and Conditions

➢ The financial assistance given by the Commission will be used only for organizing PMLA.

➢ The assistance will be released in two installments:

➢ Rs. 15,000/- (Rupees fifteen thousand only) will be released

as advance when the proposal is approved by the Commission after receiving consent of the District Judge/DLSA along with the list of the cases obtained from the District Judge/DLSA, a small write up on the proposed programme alongwith steps proposed to be taken for counseling as per instructions in Para 6, and an undertaking as per the Format .

➢ The balance amount will be released after conducting of the PMLA and on the submission of the (i) Utilization certificate from the Chartered Accountant, (ii) Statement of Account, (iii) Original vouchers of expenditure, (iv) The details of cases considered in the PMLA and the result thereof and (v) A Report/ Write-up on the function held with the photographs and copies of Banners etc.

➢ The utilization certificate along with other documents should be submitted within one month from the date of PMLA.

➢ The NGO should ensure involvement of DLSA, other organizations, public representatives, women activists etc. in the PMLA as indicated in Para 6.

➢ Photographs of the programme as well as the pamphlets, any other literature if published, and media reports should be sent to the Commission.

➢ No equipment/asset will be purchased out of the assistance given by the Commission.

➢ Unspent portion of the assistance will be refunded to the Commission.

➢ Separate accounts of the programme will be maintained and the same will be subjected to test check by the Commission through its representative or CAG.

➢ In the event of violation of any of the terms and conditions of sanction or non-holding of PMLA, the organisation will have to refund the entire amount of sanction to the Commission on demand or such part thereof, alongwith penal interest, as per the government rates.

➢ The Commission may lay down any other conditions prior to the release of the assistance.

 Matters which can be brought before the Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalats The following type of matters can be brought before the PMLA:

- All civil cases

- Matrimonial disputes including divorce, maintenance (of wife, parents, children etc.

- Compoundable Criminal cases

- Disputes related to Labour Laws

- Motor Accident Claims

- Bigamy

Desertification in India

In recent times, the loss of vegetation in the area has vastly degraded their once fertile land, and water has become a rare commodity. Since 1999, the failure of the monsoon has adversely affected the soil and the land has become barren. In order to regenerate it, ravines and ridges were treated by constructing gully plugs and digging out contour trenches. Earth check dams with spillways on either side were built to allow the water overflow to run off without damaging the dams.  Ponds were also constructed to hold larger volumes of water.

As farmers witnessed the effects of lack of water and soil erosion and its detrimental impact on agricultural production and yields, the concept of watershed management gained credence amongst them. Many are convinced that the local environment can be regenerated through a well-managed watershed programme.

Many now understand the fact that as the groundwater increases, normal farming patterns and agricultural output levels can be maintained despite changing weather conditions. The community has now learned to conserve their water and soil. Not a single drop of water runs off in their village. Caritas India has run public information campaigns trying to persuade local communities to take similar measures to stop desertification. Even though India’s land area is only 2.4 percent of the world’s total land area, it supports 16.67 percent of the world’s population and 18 percent of its livestock. These pressures alone play a major role in promoting desertification.

As the human and animal population increases, these stresses will become greater and the demand on natural resources will increase leading to permanent loss of vegetation and plant species. This may also lead to the conversion of large areas into wastelands and to the frequent occurrence of natural disasters. Half the land in India is now affected by desertification and this impairs the ability of land to support life. It is particularly devastating because of its self-reinforcing nature.

The causes of desertification are extensive cultivation of one crop, use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides, shifting cultivation without adequate period of recovery, industrial and mining activities, overgrazing, logging and illegal felling, forest fires and unsustainable water management. Desertification is a global phenomenon of land degradation, which reduces the natural potential of the ecosystems and has a direct impact on people in terms of vulnerability to food shortages and natural disasters, depletion of natural resources and deterioration of the environment.

4 important Causes of Desertification

1. Water Erosion

Soil erosion through fluvial processes affect large areas in the Saurashtra and Kutch uplands, and along the eastern margin of the Thar Desert where the average annual rainfall varies from 350 to 500 mm, but has very few occurrence to the west of 250 mm isohyets in the Thar.

The manifestations can be deciphered the pattern of sheet, rill and gully erosion features. Increased ploughing and destruction of vegetation cover for fuelwood, overgrazing and other destructive uses, must have accelerated the erosion in recent decades, but in the absence of specific data, it is difficult to suggest how much of the gulling activity is due to human activities alone and how much due to the natural processes. In Kutch region, a part of the problem is related to a slow natural uplift of the terrain over the centuries, which leads to a change in base level and increased erosion.

2. Wind Erosion/Deposition

The most vulnerable landforms to wind erosion/deposition are the sand dunes and other sandy landforms in the Thar. A closer look, however, indicates that the sandy landforms in the east are more stable than the similar landforms in the west. Rainfall gradient and wind strength are both responsible for the spatial variability in sand reactivation pattern.

The introduction of the tractor for deep ploughing, instead of the traditional animal-driven wooden plough, has increased the sand load manifold for the Aeolian processes in large parts of the desert, and accelerated the mobility of sand.

Increased destruction of the natural land cover in grazing lands for fuel and fodder and enlarging the frontiers of cultivation to less suitable sandy areas are also the responsible factors. In the foothills of the Aravali hill ranges along the wetter eastern part of the desert, such activities are also leading to accelerated water erosion, as manifested through the formation of rills and gullies.

The farmers are aware of headword progress of the gullies in the east, but do not believe that their agricultural activities hasten the process, unless tractors are used to loosen the soil. Many of them believe that the agricultural crop residues which they leave in the field are good sand binders and whatever land is being lost through gully erosion is a slow natural phenomenon. In other parts of the desert, farmers agree that deep ploughing with tractors, cultivation along dune slopes, or non-practising of long fallow systems and other traditional farming systems lead to accelerated sand movement and land degradation, but they have very few choices, as population pressure and economic consideration override environment consideration.

3. Mining

In western Rajasthan, about twenty major minerals and nine minor minerals are being mined. More than 90 per cent of the mine owners have open cast mining. The rest are underground mines. The area occupied by the mines is increasing and by 2000 AD 0.05 per cent of Jaisalmer district and 1.15 per cent of Jhunjhunu district are reportedly under mining activities.

The surface mining activity causes immediate degradation of land. The mining sites are abandoned after the excavation work is over, without adopting any reclamation measure. Mining on agricultural land, either surface or underground, reduces the productivity of land by way of excavation, disposal of debris and tailing. Mineral processing like grinding of limestone for cement industry, calcite and soapstone for ceramic industry, have three-fold adverse effects.

The fine dust, generated and released in the atmosphere, leads to surface scaling of the adjacent land after it settles down, consequently the infiltration rate is reduced and the run-off increases.

Mining activity restricts the sub-surface movement of water. With the removal of vegetation, the rate of evapotranspiration is reduced and as a result, there is a change in the hydrological balance in the area.

Due to this change, the perched water table rises and causes salinity. When the mining debris of minerals like ball clay, china clay, Fuller's earth, bentonite and gypsum are dumped on the sandy plain, a semi-impermeable surface layer is developed. These areas get flooded during the monsoon and gradually develop salinity. Sodium salt mining activity increases the surface salt concentration, causing total loss of vegetation.

4. Vegetation Degradation

One of the first casualties of desertification is natural vegetation. Degradation of natural vegetation is also one of its major causes. With increasing pressure on land vegetation, degradation is increasing at an alarming rate.

The common grazing lands around the villages are now some of the very severely degraded sites, as these are highly exploited and most neglected. Many good grazing lands have also been encroached upon for agriculture.

Programmes Controlling Desertification

India has always maintained that desertification is a function of the interplay of a number of causative factors and thus only a multi-sectoral approach alone will be able to arrest and reverse the process of desertification. Some major schemes/ programmes that have contributed to desertification control are  Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP), 1973-74; Watershed Development Project in Shifting Cultivation Areas (WDPSCA), 1974-75; Desert Development Programme (DDP), 1977-78; Reclamation & Development of Alkali Soil (RAS), 1985-86; Watershed Development Fund (WDF),  Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP), 1989; National Watershed Development Project for Rain fed Areas (NWDPRA) – 1990-91 and Soil Conservation in the Catchment of River Valley Projects (RVP) 1992. National Afforestation Programme (NAP) 2002-03 is also one of the major programmes in which  Association of Scheduled Tribes and Rural Poor in Regeneration of Degraded Forests (ASTRP), launched in 1992-93 and  Integrated Afforestation and Eco-Development Projects Scheme (LAEPS) 1989-90 were  merged into the  National Afforestation Programme.

The year mentioned against the name of the schemes above designates the year of inception. The three schemes of Desert Development Programme, Drought Prone Area Programme and Integrated Wasteland Development Programme have been consolidated into a single programme of Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) with effect from 01.04.2008. Recent initiatives include sustainable Land and Ecosystem Management (SLEM Programmatic Approach) 2007; Common Guidelines for Watershed Development Programme- 2008; Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) and Guidelines for Convergence between NREGA and NAP 2009.

The basic object of the programme is to minimise the adverse effect of drought and control desertification through rejuvenation of natural resource base of the identified desert areas, achieve ecological balance and overall economic development in the programme areas. The programme has covered in 235 blocks of 40 districts in 7 States. The corresponding physical area under the programme is about 4.57 lakh sq. kms. 

G8+5

The Group of Eight + Five (G8+5) an international group that consists of the leaders of the heads of government from the G8 nations (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States), plus the heads of government of the five leading emerging economies (Brazil, China, India, Mexico, and South Africa).

The G8+5 group was formed in 2005 when Tony Blair, then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, in his role as host of the 31st G8 summit at Gleneagles, Scotland, invited the leading emerging countries to join the talks. The hope was that this would form a stronger and more representative group that would inject fresh impetus into the trade talks at Doha, and the need to achieve a deeper cooperation on climate change.

Following the meeting, the countries issued a joint statement looking to build a "new paradigm for international cooperation" in the future.

The G8+5 Climate Change Dialogue was launched on February 24, 2006, by the (GLOBE) in partnership with the Com+ alliance of communicators for sustainable development.

On February 16, 2007, The Global Legislators Organisation (GLOBE International) held a meeting of the G8+5 Climate Change Dialogue at the GLOBE Washington Legislators Forum in Washington, D.C., where a non-binding agreement was reached to cooperate on tackling global warming. The group accepted that the existence of man-made climate change was beyond doubt, and that there should be a global system of emission caps and carbon emissions trading applying to both industrialized nations and developing countries. The group hoped this policy to be in place by 2009, to supersede the Kyoto Protocol, the first phase of which expires in 2012.

Following the 33rd G8 summit Heiligendamm 2007, German chancellor Angela Merkel announced the establishment of the "Heiligendamm Process" through which the full institutionalization of the permanent dialogue between the G8 countries and the five greatest emerging economies will be implemented. This will include the establishment of a common G8 and G5 platform at the OECD.

Most recently on August 28, 2007, former French president Nicolas Sarkozy in a foreign policy statement proposed that Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa should become members of G8: "The G8 can't meet for two days and the G13 for just two hours.... That doesn't seem fitting, given the power of these five emerging countries." Nevertheless, as of 2008, a formal enlargement of the G8 is not a realistic political option, since the G8 member states have diverging positions on this issue. The US and Japan have been against enlargement, the United Kingdom and France actively in favour, and Italy, Germany, Russia and Canada are reserved on the issue.

परिवहन संस्थान तथा मुख्यालय

परिवहन संस्थान	मुख्यालय
डीजल लोकोमोटिव वर्क्स	वाराणसी
चित्तरंजन लोकोमोटिव वर्क्स	चित्तरंजन (बंगाल)
रेल कोच फ़ैक्टरी	पेरम्बूर (चेन्नई)
रेल ह्वील फ़ैक्टरी	बंगलुरू
मरीन इंजीनियरिंग और अनुसंधान संस्थान	कोलकाता
मरीन इंजीनियरिंग और अनुसंधान संस्थान	मुम्बई
लाल बहादुर शास्त्री तटवर्ती अनुसंधान एवं उच्च अध्ययन संस्थान	मुम्बई
भारतीय अंतर्देशीय जलमार्ग प्राधिकरण	नोएडा
मेरीटाइम ट्रेनिंग इंस्टीट्यूट	मुम्बई
हिन्दुस्तान शिपयार्ड लिमिटेड	विशाखापट्टनम
केन्द्रीय अंतर्देशीय जल परिवहन निगम	कोलकाता
नगर विमानन सुरक्षा ब्यूरो	दिल्ली
राष्ट्रीय विमानन प्रबन्ध एवं अनुसंधान संस्थान	दिल्ली
फ़ायर ट्रेनिंग सेंटर	नारायणपुर (कोलकाता)
इंदिरा गांधी राष्ट्रीय उड़ान अकादमी	फ़ुरसतगंज (उत्तर प्रदेश)
भारतीय पर्यटन एवं यात्रा प्रबन्धन संस्थान	ग्वालियर
राष्ट्रीय जलक्रीड़ा संस्थान	गोआ

रक्षा संस्थान तथा उनके मुख्यालय

रक्षा संस्थान	मुख्यालय
एयर फ़ोर्स अकादमी	हैदराबाद
एयर फ़ोर्स टेक्निकल कॉलेज	बंगलुरू
कॉलेज ऑफ़ मिलिट्री इंजीनियरिंग	पुणे
रक्षा प्रबन्धन संस्थान	सिकन्दराबाद (आंध्र प्रदेश)
डिफ़ेंस सर्विसेज स्टॉफ़ कॉलेज	वेलिंगटन (तमिलनाडु)
डायरेक्टरेट जनरल एनसीसी	नई दिल्ली
इलेक्ट्रिकल एवं मेकेनिकल इंजीनियरिंग स्कूल	बड़ौदा
हिन्दुस्तान ऐयरोनोटिक्स लिमिटेड	बंगलुरू
इण्डियन एयर फ़ोर्स ट्रेनिंग सेंटर	चेन्नई
इण्डियन मिलिट्री अकादमी	देहरादून
इंस्टीट्यूट ऑफ़ आर्मामेंट टेक्नोलॉजी	पुणे
मिलिट्री कॉलेज ऑफ़ इलेक्ट्रिकल एवं मेकेनिकल इंजीनियरिंग	सिकन्दराबाद
राष्ट्रीय कैडिट कोर महानिदेशालय	नई दिल्ली
राष्ट्रीय इण्डियन मिलिट्री कॉलेज	देहरादून
राष्ट्रीय रक्षा अकादमी	खड़गवासला (पुणे)
नेवल कॉलेज ऑफ़ इंजीनियरिंग	लोनावाला (पुणे)
ऑफ़िसर्स ट्रेनिंग अकादमी	चेन्नई

Biofuels

Biofuels are a recent development, which has seen significant attention recently due to humanity's ever-dwindling supply of natural resources or more specifically our over-dependence on fossil fuels.

This has stemmed a great deal of scientific research into the issue of alternative energy and bio fuels have been seen as a potentially environmentally and affordable way for us to reduce our dependency on fossil fuels.

Biofuels is really an umbrella term and it can mean almost anything, from hydroelectric power, which is generated from waves to wind, solar and other forms of generating energy. However, for the most part the term biofuels is used to refer to that of alternative substitutes for petrol, diesel or aircraft fuel.

Up until recently, car manufacturers were highly reluctant to invest significantly in bio fuels research for mainstream vehicles. This was because biofuels are to some extent an unproven technology – we know it works; just there is little research on the overall benefits of biofuels not only to consumers, but also to the planet.

This has meant that until further research has been completed, many industries are reluctant to join in to develop biofuels into a sustainable and realistic form of energy.

Many people argue that the reason car manufacturers have started to adopt biofuels as a technology is mainly because of pressure from the world governments due to the environmental impact that fossil fuels are having on the planet.

Speaking from an environmental perspective, the rate of consumption for fossil fuels has risen exponentially in the past twenty years and as a result, we are now faced with the reality that fossil fuels such as petrol and diesel will run out within the next hundred years.

Bio fuels are a viable alternative to fossil fuels. Many varieties exist and they vary significantly. Some examples are that of biodiesel, which entails growing crops that contain high amounts of natural oil then through a process of hydrogenation or refining a more compatible bio diesel, substitute is created. This creates a biodiesel, which can be mixed with mineral diesel then used in any diesel-powered automobile.

There is a similar process that takes place creating bio-petrol by fermenting crops such as sugar cane. This creates a natural ethanol, which can also be mixed with petrol to create a sort of hybrid biofuel that can be used in any petrol powered vehicle.

However, problems exist due to the properties of ethanol as it is more corrosive than petrol and as a result, it cannot be used in many aircraft or boats.

These are examples of first generation biofuels and due to their nature they may or may not be long-term economically or environmentally viable. Arguments exist that both support the continued use of biofuels and prove they are not the miracle fuel we are waiting for.

The truth is that bio fuels technology is still young. In the next twenty years, we look set to see biofuel research expand exponentially as we get close to the day when fossil fuels are exhausted.

Until that time comes, we will always have a reliance on fossil fuels and we can only hope that biofuels as an alternative is a reality within the next twenty years.

Biofuel production is the process in which bio fuels or fossil fuel alternatives are created. This recent innovation has effectively spurred on a completely new technology, which may eliminate or significantly reduce our dependence on the finite supplies of traditional petroleum based derivatives of fossil fuels.

The essence of biofuel production is that it is primarily a sustainable form of fuel production. Research has gone into depths to discover the best ways to develop a fuel or gas, which has almost limitless supply. As a result, there now exists real alternatives to fossil fuels and biofuel production is no longer just fiction but a reality.

Existing research into biofuel production has been focused on technology that converts crops directly into biofuels, normally consuming the whole crop in the process.

Recent research has proven that whilst it may be effective, long term this is an environmentally unfriendly process due to the sheer production quantities needed to remove fossil fuel dependencies. This would obviously mean other crops suffer because of biofuel production requirements.

This has led to further research into the science of enzymes, which can be used to naturally break down left over crops and thus effectively recycle existing waste material.

This has already proved effective in landfill sites operated by the UK , which traps methane gas which is created due to the breakdown of household waste.

Second generation biofuel production technology looks set to take advantage of advanced developments in enzymes to break down waste products more aggressively either through the process of fermentation to create bio-ethanol or the trapping of gas to create methane.

However, the problem exists that most biofuels are based on biomass products that are being farmed from crops and as a result, if we shift our dependence from fossil fuels to biofuels, there will not be enough space on the planet to grow food and ensure that biofuel production is adequate for our reliance on energy.

Many research institutions are looking into more alternative technologies for bio fuel production such as genetically modifying crops to make them more environmentally friendly, to using the oceans to farm algae in ways to try to ensure that there is enough space for food crops as well as the vitally important arable ground for food crops.

The truth is that at this current moment, bio fuel production technology is still very much in the first generation. Even though there have been significant developments, the technology in general is still very young. We are now seeing biofuels being used as additives in both gasoline and diesel, which is slowly helping to reduce the strain on the world's fossil fuels.

In the immediate future, humanity will be required to make many changes to our lifestyles in order to both preserve our lifestyle but also our environment. After all this is a legacy we will leave for our children and their children, so perhaps by investing responsibly in biofuel production and research, we can ensure that we have a few years left on this earth yet.

Biodiesel has seen some controversy over past years, but to this day seems to be a way of utilizing bio degradable materials, in a way which will help the planet we live in become a better place.

Back in the early 1900s Dr Rudolf Diesel had just invented the first diesel engine, which could run efficiently on a variety of different fuels.

Biodiesel was way ahead of its time as Dr Rudolf had proved by demonstrating this at the World Fair in 1900, he showed that a diesel engine could in fact run by using peanut oil, which actually won the highest accolade, the ‘Grand Prix’. Although peanut oil is not a bio diesel, it is a bio fuel, but uses the same principles.

Biodiesel is basically a way of making fuel to power diesel engines from vegetable oils, which can be more efficient and less harmful to the environment, as they are non toxic and totally bio degradable. There have been many reports that table salt is more toxic than bio diesel, which speaks volumes in itself.

Bio diesel actually bio degrades up to four times quicker than normal petroleum diesel which we use on a daily basis.

There are so many benefits to using these kinds of bio fuels, they can be stored for an indefinite period of time in full containers, with no problems at all, and biodiesel releases no carbon dioxide and no sulphur dioxide into the air we breathe on a daily basis

The statistics speak for themselves and are too many to mention, but if every diesel engine had the modifications needed to use this environmentally friendly bio diesel fuel, would that not make the world a little bit better?

It is very strange that from the time that Dr Rudolf had made people and the government especially, aware of his findings and allegedly held very secret talks with the English navy regarding fitting all navy submarines with diesel engines, which could utilize these kinds of bio fuels and then later found floating in the English Channel.

It would almost seem like the revolutionary discovery of biodiesel would encroach on the petroleum industry. Even so, it does not take away the fact that his invention of using a different kind of fuel on a diesel engine was later patented by G Chavanne from Brussels.

Biodiesel is indeed the way forward, especially as we have countries all over the world spending billions on finding different ways to save the planet, which we have brought on ourselves.

Biodiesel is a very cheap way to power the diesel engine which has been around for many years, when you think about how much vegetable oil is disposed of in landfills around the country, just from fish and chip shops alone.

Surely it makes sense to make use of something which has already served its main purpose and turn it into a biodiesel that could be beneficial to the planet, it takes no though at all, but do the petroleum companies and governments of the world feel the same way about bio diesel?