भारत रत्न

भारत रत्न भारत का सर्वोच्च नागरिक सम्मान है। यह सम्मान राष्ट्रीय सेवा के लिए दिया जाता है। इन सेवाओं में कला, साहित्य, विज्ञान या सार्वजनिक सेवा शामिल है। इस सम्मान की स्थापना 2 जनवरी 1954 में भारत के तत्कालीन राष्ट्रपति श्री राजेंद्र प्रसाद द्वारा की गई थी। अन्य अलंकरणों के समान इस सम्मान को भी नाम के साथ पदवी के रूप में प्रयुक्त नहीं किया जा सकता। प्रारम्भ में इस सम्मान को मरणोपरांत देने का प्रावधान नहीं था, यह प्रावधान 1955 में बाद में जोड़ा गया। बाद में यह 10 व्यक्तियों को मरणोपरांत प्रदान किया गया। 13 जुलाई 1977 से 26 जनवरी 1980 तक इस पुरस्कार को स्थगित कर दिया गया था। एक वर्ष में अधिकतम तीन व्यक्तियों को ही भारत रत्न दिया जा सकता है। अन्य प्रतिष्ठित पुरस्कारों में पद्म विभूषण, पद्म भूषण और पद्मश्री,का नाम लिया जा सकता है ।

पदक:

इस पुरस्‍कार के रूप में दिए जाने वाले सम्‍मान की मूल रूप - रेखा 35 मिलिमीटर व्‍यास वाला गोलाकार स्‍वर्ण पदक है जिस पर सूर्य और ऊपर हिन्दी भाषा में भारत रत्‍न और नीचे एक फूलों का गुलदस्‍ता बना होता है पीछे की ओर शासकीय संकेत और आदर्श-वाक्‍य लिखा होता है। इसे सफ़ेद फीते में डालकर गले में पहनाया जाता है। एक वर्ष बाद इस डिजाइन को बदल दिया गया था। तांबे के बने पीपल के पत्ते पर प्लेटिनम का चमकता सूर्य बना दिया गया। जिसके नीचे चाँदी में लिखा रहता है "भारत रत्न", और यह सफ़ेद फीते के साथ गले में पहना जाता है।

परम्परा:

·        1980 में दोबारा शुरू होने पर इसे सर्वप्रथम मदर टेरेसा ने प्राप्त किया था।

·        हमारे भू.पू. राष्‍ट्रपति, वैज्ञानिक डॉ. ए. पी. जे. अब्‍दुल कलाम को भी 1997 में यह प्रतिष्ठित पुरस्‍कार दिया गया है।

·        इसका कोई लिखित प्रावधान नहीं है कि 'भारत रत्‍न' केवल भारतीय नागरिकों को ही दिया जाएगा।

·        यह पुरस्‍कार स्‍वाभाविक रूप से भारतीय नागरिक बन चुकी 'एग्‍नेस गोंखा बोजाखियू', जिन्‍हें हम मदर टेरेसा के नाम से जानते हैं, को दिया गया।

·        दो अन्‍य अभारतीय - ख़ान अब्दुलगफ़्फ़ार ख़ान को 1987 में और नेल्‍सन मंडेला को 1990 में यह पुरस्कार दिया गया।

·        यह भी अनिवार्य नहीं है कि भारत रत्‍न सम्‍मान प्रतिवर्ष दिया जाएगा।

·        मरणोपरांत सर्वप्रथम लालबहादुर शास्त्री को भारत रत्न से सम्मानित किया गया था।

·        श्री सत्यपाल आनन्द ने राजीव गाँधी को मरणोपरांत भारत रत्न देने की प्रक्रिया को मध्य प्रदेश उच्च न्यायालय में चुनौती दी थी

·        भारत रत्‍न पुरस्‍कार की परम्‍परा 1954 में शुरू हुई थी।

·        भारत रत्न 26 जनवरी को भारत के राष्ट्रपति द्वारा दिया जाता है।

·        सबसे पहला पुरस्‍कार प्रसिद्ध वैज्ञानिक चंद्रशेखर वेंकटरमन को दिया गया था। तब से अनेक विशिष्‍ट जनों को अपने-अपने क्षेत्र में उत्‍कृष्‍टता पाने के लिए यह पुरस्‍कार प्रस्‍तुत किया गया है।

·        जनता पार्टी द्वारा इस पुरस्कार को 1977 में बंद कर दिया गया था किंतु 1980 में कांग्रेस सरकर ने इसे फिर से दोबारा शुरू किया।

विरोधाभास:

स्वतंत्र भारत के प्रथम शिक्षा मंत्री श्री मौलाना अबुल कलाम आज़ाद को जब 'भारत रत्न' दिया गया तो उन्होंने इसका विरोध किया । उनका विचार था कि इसकी चयन समिति में रहे व्यक्ति को यह सम्मान नहीं दिया जाना चाहिये। 1992 में उन्हें मरणोपरांत 'भारत रत्न' दिया गया।

स्वतंत्रता सेनानी नेताजी सुभाषचन्द्र बोस को 1992 में 'भारत रत्न' से मरणोपरान्त सम्मानित किया गया था। किंतु उनकी मृत्यु विवादित होने के कारण अनेक प्रश्नों को उठाया गया था। अत: भारत सरकार ने यह पुरस्कार वापस ले लिया था। यह पुरस्कार वापस लेने का यह एकमात्र उदाहरण है।

भारत रत्न सम्मानित व्यक्तित्व सूची

क्रम	वर्ष	नाम	जीवन	विशेष
1	1954	डॉक्टर सर्वपल्ली राधाकृष्णन	5 सितंबर 1888-17 अप्रैल 1975	दार्शनिक, द्वितीय राष्ट्रपति-भारत
2	1954	चक्रवर्ती राजगोपालाचारी	10 दिसंबर 1878-25 दिसंबर 1972	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, अंतिम गवर्नर जनरल
3	1954	डॉक्टर चंद्रशेखर वेंकट रामन	7 नवंबर 1888-21 नवंबर 1970	भौतिकशास्त्री, नोबेल पुरस्कार विजेता
4	1955	डॉक्टर भगवान दास	12 जनवरी 1869-18 सितंबर 1958	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, लेखक
5	1955	सर डॉ. मोक्षगुंडम विश्वेश्वरय्या	15 सितंबर 1861-14 अप्रैल 1962	सिविल इंजीनियर, मैसूर के दीवान
6	1955	पं. जवाहर लाल नेहरू	14 नवंबर 1889-27 मई 1964	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, लेखक, प्रथम प्रधानमंत्री-भारत
7	1957	गोविंद बल्लभ पंत	10 सितंबर 1887-7 मार्च 1961	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, प्रथम मुख्यमंत्री-उत्तर प्रदेश, द्वितीय गृहमंत्री-भारत
8	1958	डॉ. धोंडो केशव कर्वे	18 अप्रैल 1858-9 नवंबर 1962	शिक्षक, समाजसुधारक
9	1961	डॉ. बिधान चंद्र राय	1 जुलाई 1882-1 जुलाई 1962	चिकित्सक, मुख्यमंत्री-पश्चिमी बंगाल
10	1961	पुरुषोत्तम दास टंडन	1 अगस्त 1882-1 जुलाई 1962	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, शिक्षक
11	1962	डॉ. राजेंद्र प्रसाद	3 दिसंबर 1884-28 फ़रवरी 1963	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, विधिवेत्ता, प्रथम राष्ट्रपति-भारत
12	1963	डॉ. ज़ाकिर हुसैन	8 फ़रवरी 1897-3 मई 1969	विद्वान, तृतीय राष्ट्रपति-भारत
13	1963	डॉ. पांडुरंग वामन काणे	1880-1972	भारतविद, संस्कृत विद्वान
14	1966	लाल बहादुर शास्त्री	2 अक्तूबर 1904 - 11 जनवरी 1966,	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, तृतीय प्रधानमंत्री,-भारत, (मरणोपरान्त(
15	1971	इंदिरा गाँधी	19 नवंबर 1917-31 अक्तूबर 1984	चतुर्थ प्रधानमंत्री-भारत
16	1975	वराहगिरी वेंकट गिरी	10 अगस्त 1894-23 जून 1980	श्रमिक संघवादी, चतुर्थ राष्ट्रपति-भारत
17	1976	के. कामराज	15 जुलाई 1903-1975,	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, मुख्यमंत्री-मद्रास, (मरणोपरान्त(
18	1980	मदर टेरेसा	26 अगस्त 1910-5 सितंबर 1997	कॅथोलिक नन, मिशनरीज़ संस्थापक, नोबेल पुरस्कार विजेता
19	1983	आचार्य विनोबा भावे	11 सितंबर 1895-15 नवंबर 1982,	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, समाज सुधारक, (मरणोपरान्त(
20	1987	ख़ान अब्दुलगफ़्फ़ार ख़ान	20 जनवरी 1890-1988,	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, प्रथम अभारतीय प्राप्तकर्ता
21	1988	मरुदुर गोपालन रामचन्द्रन (एम जी आर)	17 जनवरी 1917-24 दिसंबर 1987,	अभिनेता, मुख्यमंत्री-तमिलनाडु, (मरणोपरान्त(
22	1990	डॉ. भीमराव रामजी आम्बेडकर	14 अप्रैल 1891-6 दिसंबर 1956	भारतीय संविधान के वास्तुकार, राजनीतिज्ञ, अर्थशास्त्री, विद्वान, (मरणोपरान्त(
23	1990	नेल्‍सन मंडेला	18 जुलाई 1918,	द्वितीय अभारतीय प्राप्तकर्ता, रंगभेद विरोधी आंदोलन के नेता, नोबेल पुरस्कार विजेता
24	1991	राजीव गांधी	20 अगस्त1944-21 मई 1991	सातवें प्रधानमंत्री, (मरणोपरान्त(
25	1991	सरदार वल्लभ भाई पटेल	31 अक्तूबर 1875-15 दिसंबर 1950	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, प्रथम गृहमंत्री-भारत, (मरणोपरान्त)
26	1991	मोरारजी देसाई	29 फ़रवरी 1896-10 अप्रैल 1995	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, पांचवे प्रधानमंत्री-भारत
27	1992	मौलाना अबुल कलाम आज़ाद	11 नवंबर 1888-22 फ़रवरी 1958	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, प्रथम शिक्षामंत्री-भारत, (मरणोपरान्त(
28	1992	जहांगीर रतनजी दादाभाई टाटा जे. आर. डी. टाटा	29 जुलाई 1904-29 नवंबर 1993	उद्योगपति, (मरणोपरान्त(
29	1992	सत्यजीत रे राय	2 मई 1921-23 अप्रैल 1992	फ़िल्म निर्माता-निर्देशक
30	1997	ए. पी. जे. अब्दुल कलाम	15 अक्तूबर 1931	वैज्ञानिक, ग्यारहवें राष्ट्रपति-भारत
31	1997	गुलज़ारीलाल नन्दा	4 जुलाई 1897-15 जनवरी 1998	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, दो बार कार्यवाहक प्रधानमंत्री-भारत
32	1997	अरुणा आसफ़ अली	16 जुलाई 1909-29 जुलाई 1996	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, (मरणोपरान्त)
33	1998	एम.एस. सुब्बालक्ष्मी	16 सितंबर 1916- 11 दिसंबर 2004	गायिका शास्त्रीय संगीत
34.	1998	सी. सुब्रह्मण्यम	30 जनवरी 1910-7 नवंबर 2000	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, कृषि मंत्री-भारत
35	1998	जयप्रकाश नारायण	11 अक्तूबर 1902-8 अक्तूबर 1979	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, राजनीतिज्ञ, (मरणोपरान्त(
36	1999	पं. रवि शंकर	7 अप्रैल 1920	सितार वादक
37	1999	अमर्त्य सेन	3 नवंबर 1933	अर्थशास्त्री, नोबेल पुरस्कार विजेता
38	1999	गोपीनाथ बोरदोलोई	1890 -1950	स्वतंत्रता सेनानी, मुख्यमंत्री-असम, (मरणोपरान्त(
39	2001	लता मंगेशकर	28 सितंबर 1929	पार्श्वगायिका
40	2001	उस्ताद बिस्मिल्ला ख़ां	21 मार्च 1916 - 21 अगस्त 2006	शहनाई वादक
41	2008	पं.भीमसेन जोशी	4 फ़रवरी 1922 - 24 जनवरी 2011	शास्त्रीय गायक

इस बार गृह मंत्रालय द्वारा  पुरस्कार की चयन प्रक्रिया में बदलाव किया जा चुका है और खेल को भी इस सूची में शामिल कर लिया गया है

OPEC a brief introduction

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries is an intergovernmental organization of twelve oil-producing countries made up of Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. OPEC has had its headquarters in Vienna since 1965,and hosts regular meetings among the oil ministers of its Member Countries. Indonesia withdrew in 2008 after it became a net importer of oil, but stated it would likely return if it became a net exporter again.

 Venezuela and Iran were the first countries to move towards the establishment of OPEC in the 1960,s by approaching Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia in 1949, suggesting that they exchange views and explore avenues for regular and closer communication among petroleum-producing nations. The founding members are Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela. Later members include Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Libya, Qatar, Nigeria, and the United Arab Emirates.

In 10–14 September 1960, at the initiative of the Venezuelan Energy and Mines minister Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo and the Saudi Arabian Energy and Mines minister Abdullah al-Tariki, the governments of Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela met in Baghdad to discuss ways to increase the price of the crude oil produced by their respective countries.

OPEC was founded to unify and coordinate members' petroleum policies. Between 1960 and 1975, the organization expanded to include Qatar (1961), Indonesia (1962), Libya (1962), the United Arab Emirates (1967), Algeria (1969), and Nigeria (1971). Ecuador and Gabon were early members of OPEC, but Ecuador withdrew on December 31, 1992 because it was unwilling or unable to pay a $2 million membership fee and felt that it needed to produce more oil than it was allowed to under the OPEC quota, although it rejoined in October 2007. Similar concerns prompted Gabon to suspend membership in January 1995. Angola joined on the first day of 2007. Norway and Russia have attended OPEC meetings as observers. Indicating that OPEC is not averse to further expansion, Mohammed Barkindo, OPEC's Secretary General, recently asked Sudan to join. Iraq remains a member of OPEC, but Iraqi production has not been a part of any OPEC quota agreements since March 1998.

In May 2008, Indonesia announced that it would leave OPEC when its membership expired at the end of that year, having become a net importer of oil and being unable to meet its production quota. A statement released by OPEC on 10 September 2008 confirmed Indonesia's withdrawal, noting that it "regretfully accepted the wish of Indonesia to suspend its full Membership in the Organization and recorded its hope that the Country would be in a position to rejoin the Organization in the not too distant future."  Indonesia is still exporting light, sweet crude oil and importing heavier, more sour crude oil to take advantage of price differentials (import is greater than export) due to Air pollution in Indonesia still being low as compared to China or India.

सार्क सम्मेलन

दक्षिण एशियाई क्षेत्रीय सहयोग संगठन (सार्क) दक्षिण एशिया के आठ देशों का आर्थिक और राजनीतिक संगठन है। संगठन के सदस्य देशों की जनसंख्या (लगभग 1.5 अरब) को देखा जाए तो यह किसी भी क्षेत्रीय संगठन की तुलना में ज्यादा प्रभावशाली है। इसकी स्थापना 8 दिसंबर,1985 को भारत, पाकिस्तान, बांग्लादेश, श्रीलंका, नेपाल, मालदीव और भूटान द्वारा मिलकर की गई थी। अप्रैल 2007 में संघ के 14 वें शिखर सम्मेलन में अफ़ग़ानिस्तान इसका आठवा सदस्य बन गया।1970 के दशक में बांग्लादेश के तत्कालीन राष्ट्रपति जियाउर रहमान ने दक्षिण एशियाई देशों के एक व्यापार गुट के सृजन का प्रस्ताव किया। मई 1980 में दक्षिण एशिया में क्षेत्रीय सहयोग का विचार फिर रखा गया था। अप्रैल 1981 में सातों देश के विदेश सचिव कोलंबो में पहली बार मिले। इनकी समिति ने क्षेत्रीय सहयोग के लिए पाँच व्यापक क्षेत्रों की पहचान की। सहयोग के नए क्षेत्रों में आने वाले वर्षों में जोड़े गए।

चार्टर में परिभाषित किए गए संगठन के उद्देश्य हैं:

1.दक्षिण एशिया के लोगों के कल्याण को बढ़ावा देने के लिए जीवन की उनकी गुणवत्ता में सुधार लाने के लिए;

2.क्षेत्र में आर्थिक विकास, सामाजिक प्रगति और सांस्कृतिक विकास में तेजी लाने और सभी व्यक्तियों को  स्वाभिमान के साथ रहने और अपनी पूरी क्षमता का एहसास करने का अवसर प्रदान करने के लिए;

3.दक्षिण एशिया के देशों के बीच सामूहिक आत्म निर्भरता को बढ़ावा देने और मजबूत प्रदान करने के लिए;

4. आपसी विश्वास, एक दूसरे समस्याओं के प्रति समझ बढ़ाने के लिए;

5.आर्थिक, सांस्कृतिक, तकनीकी, सामाजिक और वैज्ञानिक क्षेत्रों में सक्रिय सहयोग और आपसी सहयोग को बढ़ावा देने के लिए;

6. अन्य विकासशील देशों के साथ सहयोग को मजबूत करने के लिए;

7.आपस में साझा हित के मामलों पर अंतरराष्ट्रीय मंचों में सहयोग को मजबूत करने के लिए, औरसमान लक्ष्य और उद्देश्य के साथ अंतरराष्ट्रीय और क्षेत्रीय संगठनों के साथ सहयोग करने के लिए।

दक्षिण एशियाई क्षेत्रीय सहयोग पर इस घोषणा को 1983 में नई दिल्ली में विदेश मंत्रियों द्वारा अपनाया गया। बैठक के दौरान मंत्रियों ने नौ सहमत क्षेत्रों, अर्थात्, कृषि, ग्रामीण विकास, दूरसंचार, मौसम, स्वास्थ्य और जनसंख्या क्रियाएँ में , परिवहन, डाक सेवा, विज्ञान और प्रौद्योगिकी, और खेल, कला और संस्कृति में एकीकृत कार्ययोजना (IPA) की शुरुआत की। दक्षिण एशियाई क्षेत्रीय सहयोग संगठन        (सार्क) स्थापना 8 दिसंबर 1984 को बांग्लादेश, भूटान, भारत, मालदीव, नेपाल, पाकिस्तान और श्रीलंका के प्रमुखों द्वारा उक्त चार्टर को औपचारिक रूप से स्वीकार किए जाने के साथ हुई।

13 नवंबर, 2005 को भारत के प्रयास से इस क्षेत्रीय समूह में अफ़ग़ानिस्तान को शामिल किया गया और 3 अप्रैल, 2007को आठवां सदस्य बन गया। अप्रैल 2006 में, संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका और दक्षिण कोरिया ने पर्यवेक्षक का दर्जा प्रदान किए जाने का औपचारिक अनुरोध किया। यूरोपीय संघ में भी पर्यवेक्षक बनने में दिलचस्पी दिखाई और जुलाई 2006 में सार्क मंत्रिपरिषद की बैठक में इस बाबत औपचारिक अनुरोध प्रस्तुत किया। 2 अगस्त 2006 को सार्क देशों के विदेश मंत्रियों ने सिद्धांत रूप में अमेरिका, दक्षिण कोरिया और यूरोपीय संघ को पर्यवेक्षक का दर्जा देने के लिए सहमत हुए। 4 मार्च 2007, ईरान ने पर्यवेक्षक का दर्जा प्रदान किए जाने अनुरोध किया। इसके बाद मॉरीशस ने संगठन में प्रवेश किया।

सचिवालय

16 जनवरी 1987 को काठमांडू में नेपाल के स्वर्गीय राजा बीरेंद्र बीर बिक्रम शाह द्वारा सार्क सचिवालय का उद्घाटन किया गया। संगठन का संचालन सदस्य देशों के मंत्रिपरिषद द्वारा नियुक्त महासचिव करते हैं, जिसकी नियुक्ति तीन साल के लिए देशों के वर्णमाला क्रम के अनुसार की जाती है।

सदस्यता

वर्तमान सदस्य:  अफगानिस्तान, बांग्लादेश, भूटान ,भारत ,मालदीव ,नेपाल ,पाकिस्तान, श्रीलंका

प्रेक्षक देश:  ऑस्ट्रेलिया, चीन, यूरोपीय संघ, ईरान, जापान, मॉरिशस, म्यान्मार, दक्षिण कोरिया, संयुक्त राज्य

महासचिव:

  

बांग्लादेश	अबुल अहसान	16 जनवरी, 1987 से 15 अक्टूबर, 1989
भारत	कांत किशोर भार्गव	17 अक्टूबर, 1989 से 31 दिसंबर, 1991
मालदीव	इब्राहिम हुसैन जाकी	1 जनवरी 1992 से 31 दिसंबर, 1993
नेपाल	यादव कांत सिलवाल	1 जनवरी, 1994 से 31 दिसंबर, 1995
पाकिस्तान	नईम यू हासन	1 जनवरी, 1996 से 31 दिसंबर, 1998
श्रीलंका	निहाल रोडरिगो	1 जनवरी, 1999 से 10 जनवरी, 2002
बांग्लादेश	क्यू.ए.एम.ए. रहीम	11 जनवरी, 2002 से 28 फरवरी, 2005
भूटान	ल्योपनो चेन्क्याब दोरज़ी	1 मार्च, 2005 से 29 फरवरी, 2008
भारत	शील कांत शर्मा	1 मार्च, 2008 से 28 फरवरी 2011
मालदीव	फ़ातिमा धियाना सईद	1 मार्च, 2011 से 22 जनवरी,2012
मालदीव	अहमद सालीम	12 मार्च, 2012 से अब तक

शिखर सम्मेलन:

7 दिसंबर, 1985	ढाका
16 नवंबर, 1986	बैंगलोर
21 नवंबर, 1987	काठमांडू
29 दिसंबर, 1988	इस्लामाबाद
21 नवंबर, 1990	माले
21 दिसंबर, 1991	कोलंबो
10 अप्रैल, 1993	ढाका
21 मई, 1995	नयी दिल्ली
12 मई, 1997	माले
29 जुलाई, 1998	कोलंबो
4 जनवरी, 2002	काठमांडू
2 जनवरी, 2004	इस्लामाबाद
12 नवंबर, 2005	ढाका
13 अप्रैल, 2007	नयी दिल्ली
2-3 अगस्त ,2008	कोलंबो
28-29 अप्रैल,2010	थिम्पू
10 नवंबर,2011	अददु

United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund

United Nations Children's Fund is a United Nations Programme headquartered in New York City that provides long-term humanitarian and developmental assistance to children and mothers in developing countries. It is one of the members of the United Nations Development Group and its Executive Committee.

UNICEF was created by the United Nations General Assembly on December 11, 1946, to provide emergency food and healthcare to children in countries that had been devastated by World War II. In 1954, UNICEF became a permanent part of the United Nations System and its name was shortened from the original United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund but it has continued to be known by the popular acronym based on this old name. Head of The UNESCO is Anthony Lake.

UNICEF's programs emphasize developing community-level services to promote the health and well-being of children. UNICEF was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965 and the Prince of Asturias Award of Concord in 2006.

There are National Committees in 36 industrialized countries worldwide, each established as an independent local non-governmental organization. The National Committees raise funds from the private sector.

UNICEF is funded exclusively by voluntary contributions, and the National Committee collectively raise around one-third of UNICEF's annual income. This comes through contributions from corporations, civil society organizations and more than 6 million individual donors worldwide. They also rally many different partners – including the media, national and local government officials, NGOs, specialists such as doctors and lawyers, corporations, schools, young people and the general public – on issues related to children’s rights.

UNICEF is present in 191 countries and territories around the world. UNICEF designated 1979 as the "Year of the Child" and many celebrities including David Gordon, David Essex, Alun Davies and Cat Stevens gave a performance at a benefit concert celebrating the Year of the Child Concert in December 1979.

Many people in developed countries first hear about UNICEF's work through the activities of 36 National Committees for UNICEF. These non-governmental organizations (NGO) are primarily responsible for fundraising, selling UNICEF greeting cards and products, creating private and public partnerships, advocating for children’s rights, and providing other invaluable support. The U.S. Fund for UNICEF is the oldest of the National Committees, founded in 1947.

New Zealand appointed, in 2005, 18-year-old Hayley Westenra, a talented, world famous opera and pop singer as their Ambassador to UNICEF, in an effort to enlist the youth of the world in supporting UNICEF. Westenra has made several trips to visit underprivileged children in developing countries on behalf of UNICEF, in an effort to publicize their plight, and has engaged in fund-raising activities in support of the UNICEF mission.

On 19 April 2007, Grand Duchess Maria Teresa of Luxembourg was appointed UNICEF Eminent Advocate for Children, in which role she has visited Brazil (2007), China (2008), and Burundi (2009).

In 2009, the British retailer Tesco used “Change for Good” as advertising, which is trade marked by Unicef for charity usage but is not trademarked for commercial or retail use. This prompted the agency to say, "it is the first time in Unicef’s history that a commercial entity has purposely set out to capitalise on one of our campaigns and subsequently damage an income stream which several of our programmes for children are dependent on”. They went on to call on the public “who have children’s welfare at heart, to consider carefully who they support when making consumer choices”.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

The Organization's history

As early as 1942, in wartime, the governments of the European countries, which were confronting Nazi Germany and its allies, met in the United Kingdom for the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education (CAME). The Second World War was far from over, yet those countries were looking for ways and means to reconstruct their systems of education once peace was restored. Very quickly, the project gained momentum and soon took on a universal note. New governments, including that of the United States, decided to join in.

Upon the proposal of CAME, a United Nations Conference for the establishment of an educational and cultural organization (ECO/CONF) was convened in London from 1 to 16 November 1945. Scarcely had the war ended when the conference opened. It gathered together the representatives of forty-four countries who decided to create an organization that would embody a genuine culture of peace. In their eyes, the new organization must establish the “intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind” and, in so doing, prevent the outbreak of another world war.

At the end of the conference, thirty-seven countries founded the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The Constitution of UNESCO, signed on 16 November 1945, came into force on 4 November 1946 after ratification by twenty countries: Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Egypt, France, Greece, India, Lebanon, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey, United Kingdom and United States. The first session of the General Conference of UNESCO was held in Paris from 19 November to 10 December 1946 with the participation of representatives from 30 governments entitled to vote.

The political divisions of the Second World War marked the composition of the founding Member States of UNESCO. It was not until 1951 that Japan and the Federal Republic of Germany became Members, and Spain was accepted in 1953. Other major historical factors, such as the Cold War, the decolonization process and the dissolution of the USSR, also left their trace on UNESCO. The USSR joined UNESCO in 1954 and was replaced by the Russian Federation in 1992 alongside 12 former Soviet republics. Nineteen African states became Members in the 1960s.

As a consequence of its entry into the United Nations, the People's Republic of China has been the only legitimate representative of China at UNESCO since 1971. The German Democratic Republic was a Member from 1972 to 1990, when it joined the Federal Republic of Germany.

Some countries withdrew from the Organization for political reasons at various points in time, but they have today all rejoined UNESCO. South Africa was absent from 1957 to 1994, the United States of America between 1985 to 2003, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland from 1986 to 1997 and Singapore from 1986 to 2007. 

Origins of UNESCO

The main predecessors of UNESCO were:

The International Committee of Intellectual Co-operation (CICI), Geneva 1922-1946, and its executing agency, the International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation (IICI), Paris, 1925-1946;

The International Bureau of Education (IBE), Geneva, 1925-1968; since 1969 IBE has been part of the UNESCO Secretariat under its own statutes.

UNESCO works to create the conditions for dialogue among civilizations, cultures and peoples, based upon respect for commonly shared values. It is through this dialogue that the world can achieve global visions of sustainable development encompassing observance of human rights, mutual respect and the alleviation of poverty, all of which are at the heart of UNESCO’S mission and activities.

The broad goals and concrete objectives of the international community – as set out in the internationally agreed development goals, including the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) – underpin all UNESCO’s strategies and activities. Thus UNESCO’s unique competencies in education, the sciences, culture and communication and information contribute towards the realization of those goals.

UNESCO’s mission is to contribute to the building of peace, the eradication of poverty, sustainable development and intercultural dialogue through education, the sciences, culture, communication and information. The Organization focuses, in particular, on two global priorities:

Africa

Gender equality

And on a number of overarching objectives:

Attaining quality education for all and lifelong learning

Mobilizing science knowledge and policy for sustainable development

Addressing emerging social and ethical challenges

Fostering cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue and a culture of peace

Building inclusive knowledge societies through information and communication

The General Conference

The General Conference consists of the representatives of the States Members of the Organization. It meets every two years, and is attended by Member States and Associate Members, together with observers for non-Member States, intergovernmental organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Each country has one vote, irrespective of its size or the extent of its contribution to the budget.

The General Conference determines the policies and the main lines of work of the Organization. Its duty is to set the programmes and the budget of UNESCO. It also elects the Members of the Executive Board and appoints, every four years, the Director-General. The working languages of the General Conference are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.

The Executive Board

The Executive Board, in a sense, assures the overall management of UNESCO. It prepares the work of the General Conference and sees that its decisions are properly carried out. The functions and responsibilities of the Executive Board are derived primarily from the Constitution and from rules or directives laid down by the General Conference.

Every two years the General Conference assigns specific tasks to the Board. Other functions stem from agreements concluded between UNESCO and the United Nations, the specialized agencies and other intergovernmental organizations.

Its fifty-eight members are elected by the General Conference. The choice of these representatives is largely a matter of the diversity of the cultures and their geographical origin. Skillful negotiations may be needed before a balance is reached among the different regions of the world in a way that will reflect the universality of the Organization. The Executive Board meets twice in a year.

The Organization has now 195 Members and 8 Associate Members. Director General of UNESCO is IRINA BOKOVA. Headquarters of the UNESCO is Paris (France).

The U.N. and its Main Organs

The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945 after the Second World War by 51 countries committed to maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations and promoting social progress, better living standards and human rights.

The UN has 4 main purposes

·         To keep peace throughout the world;

·         To develop friendly relations among nations;

·         To help nations work together to improve the lives of poor people, to conquer hunger, disease and illiteracy, and to encourage respect for each other’s rights and freedoms;

·         To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations to achieve these goals.

There are 193 member states, including every internationally recognized sovereign state in the world but Vatican City. From its offices around the world, the UN and its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout the year. The organization has six principal organs: the General Assembly; the Security Council; the Economic and Social Council ; the Secretariat; the International Court of Justice; and the United Nations Trusteeship Council . Other prominent UN System agencies include the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). The UN's most prominent position is Secretary-General which has been held by Ban Ki-moon of South Korea since 2007. The United Nations Headquarters resides in international territory in New York City, with further main offices at Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, and has six official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.

The work of the United Nations reaches every corner of the globe. Although best known for peacekeeping, peace building, conflict prevention and humanitarian assistance, there are many other ways the United Nations and its System (specialized agencies, funds and programmes) affect our lives and make the world a better place. The Organization works on a broad range of fundamental issues, from sustainable development, environment and refugees protection, disaster relief, counter terrorism, disarmament and non-proliferation, to promoting democracy, human rights, gender equality and the advancement of women, governance, economic and social development and international health, clearing landmines, expanding food production, and more, in order to achieve its goals and coordinate efforts for a safer world for this and future generations.

General Assembly:  The General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the United Nations. Composed of all United Nations member states, the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions under a president elected from among the member states. Over a two-week period at the start of each session, all members have the opportunity to address the assembly. Traditionally, the Secretary-General makes the first statement, followed by the president of the assembly. The first session was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall Westminster in London and included representatives of 51 nations.

When the General Assembly votes on important questions, a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required. Examples of important questions include: recommendations on peace and security; election of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members; and, budgetary matters. All other questions are decided by majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from approval of budgetary matters, resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace and security that are under Security Council consideration.

Security Council: The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its powers, outlined in the United Nations Charter, include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the authorization of military action. Its powers are exercised through United Nations Security Council resolutions. The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946 at Church House, Westminster, London. Since its first meeting, the Council, which exists in continuous session, has travelled widely, holding meetings in many cities, such as Paris and Addis Ababa, as well as at its current permanent home at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City. There are 15 members of the Security Council, consisting of five veto-wielding permanent members—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States—based on the great powers that were the victors of World War II, and 10 elected non-permanent members with two-year terms. This basic structure is set out in Chapter V of the UN Charter. Security Council members must always be present at UN headquarters in New York so that the Security Council can meet at any time. This requirement of the United Nations Charter was adopted to address a weakness of the League of Nations since that organization was often unable to respond quickly to a crisis.

UN Secretariat: The United Nations Secretariat is one of the principal organs of the United Nations, an intergovernmental organization charged with the promotion of aiding states to collectively maintain international peace and security; it serves as a forum for member-states to discuss and resolve pressing issues in the international field through primarily diplomatic resources. The Secretariat is composed of a Secretary General, assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide. The Secretary General is appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. It services the other principal organs of the United Nations and administers the programs and policies laid down by them. The Secretariat carries out myriad duties ranging from the administration of peacekeeping operations to making surveys/studies about different countries' economic and social trends.

UN Economic and Social Council: The United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)  constitutes one of the principal organs of the United Nations. It is responsible for coordinating the economic, social and related work of 14 UN specialized agencies, their functional commissions and five regional commissions. ECOSOC has 54 members; it holds a four-week session each year in July. Since 1998, it has also held a meeting each April with finance ministers heading key committees of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The ECOSOC serves as the central forum for discussing international economic and social issues, and for formulating policy recommendations addressed to member states and the United Nations system.

International Court of Justice: The International Court of Justice is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, the Netherlands. Its main functions are to settle legal disputes submitted to it by states and to provide advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorized international organs, agencies, and the UN General Assembly.

UN Trusteeship Council: The United Nations Trusteeship Council, one of the principal organs of the United Nations, was established to help ensure that trust territories were administered in the best interests of their inhabitants and of international peace and security. The trust territories—most of them former mandates of the League of Nations or territories taken from nations defeated at the end of World War II—have all now attained self-government or independence, either as separate nations or by joining neighbouring independent countries. The last was Palau, formerly part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, which became a member state of the United Nations in December 1994.