Kudamkulam: Ready to produce power?

Almost 11 years after concrete had first been poured in the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project (KKNPP) in March 2001, India still awaits the 2000 MW electricity that the plant could generate. Six months after nuclear fuel-enriched Uranium was loaded into the core of the plant, with repeated tests being run to satisfy all safety parameters, Kudankulam is still on the brink. For the nuclear protesters that brink denotes a lurking disaster while for India's nuclear establishment, it is the power that could relieve a crippling shortage that has come in the way of growth.

The stalled project had seen its share of delays right from the beginning. A product of the Indo-USSR pact in 1988, the first hurdle came in the form of collapse of the USSR. Clearances, in line with the laws of those days, were obtained in 1989 and land acquisition completed by the 1980s. The plant had to be renegotiated with Russia in 1997.

But a different set of rules for environment safety were in place in 1997, under the Ministry of Environment and Forest. Any project that cost over Rs 50 crore needed to go through an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and a Public Hearing, after the copy of the EIA was given to the public/panchayats (local body governance) of the village in which the project was to come up. The notification mandated any expansion and modernisation of existing projects and new ones should go through a process of EIA by an expert committee chosen by the Ministry of Environment and Forest. The report had to be placed before the State Pollution Control Board, which would then convene a public hearing to find out objections to the project. Schedule I of the notification included nuclear plants and allied industries.

The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd, the Indian company that is implementing the project, had also proposed four more plants in the site. A fresh inter-Government agreement was signed in 2008. While the two plants for which permissions were already in place did not have to go through additional processes, the other four proposed plants had to. Permissions for those four plants had come only in 2012 after much deliberation and changes in the safety plan, after EIA and public hearing.

HOME-GROWN INDUSTRY AND ITS SAFETY

The civilian nuclear energy programme in India is 62 years old with one of the safest records in the world. There have been no Chernobyl-like or Three Mile Island-like accidents, events that were believed to be caused by human factor. India also collaborated with the likes of Canada, France, USA. However with the Smiling Buddha operation in 1974, the country faced a nuclear apartheid. Countries that had then helped India set up reactors backed out of their commitments, setting back many projects. The fast breeder reactors, for which India was working with France, were delayed. A smaller test breeder reactor has been in operation for almost 30 years now, but the 500 MW Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) is yet to go on stream, the nuclear establishment attributing this delay to the manufacturing of a first-of-its-type equipment.

Since then the nuclear energy programme has been almost entirely home-grown and has often been praised elsewhere for the ingenuity and experimental facilities that is matched only by Russia. In that sense, Kudankulam then would come to mean a collaboration between two of the best in the world.

But then the project attracted so much opposition that it was almost derailed twice, and while the last rounds have come very close to commissioning, it has not reached that state. The residents of Idinthakarai, a village 6 km outside the 5 km sterilisation zone, have called for the project to be abandoned. In September 2011, the anti-nuclear movement started gaining momentum, forcing the State of Tamilnadu to call for a suspension of works in a ready-to-be commissioned project.

SUMMER OF DISCONTENT

Tamil Nadu was going through an unprecedented power shortage, with an installed capacity of 11,640 MW including from Central projects like Neyveli Lignite Corporation through power sharing agreements, and the state experiencing a 4,460 MW deficiency. The demand from the Power Utility was projected at 13,450 MW for 2013-14.

The Tamil Nadu Generation and Transmission Company – TANGEDCO – had to resort to extensive power cuts throughout 2012, some extending up to 12 hours in rural areas to manage the crisis. The crisis continues in 2013, with the state being energy-starved this summer also.

There has been little capacity addition since 2000 in the state and opposition to projects like the 1600 MW Jayamkondan Lignite Power Project had meant that the state quickly went from energy surplus to buying power from the North Eastern States. Demand had increased from 6000 MW in early 2000 to 12000 MW within a decade. Many of the thermal plants are operating only at 50 percent capacity and dwindling resources at Neyveli Lignite Corporation poses its own problems. The state needed to add capacity and add it quickly.

This prompted the Chief Minister to do a volte-face on her stand that KKNPP can only be commissioned after allaying the fears of the locals and seeking immediate consent. The consent came a day after parliamentary by-elections to Sankarankoil constituency, in the district of Tirunelveli, the same as Kudankulam in March 2012. It was an election fought over the poor management of power crisis. The AIADMK-government leveraged its victory to give consent to the project. It also upped its ante by demanding all of the 2000 MW for the state, negating the original power-sharing contract.

Both the AIADMK and its bitter enemy the DMK had contributed to the power crisis, by not adding capacity and by distributing freebies promised during elections like TVs, blenders, grinders and fans (and where fans were redundant induction stoves). These energy intensive appliances added another requirement of 250 MW per day, according to some TANGEDCO estimates. But with the by-elections won, the AIADMK government put the ball firmly in the centre's court.

EXPERT GROUP STRUGGLES TO WIN OVER

The centre was urged to win over the support of locals after allaying fears. Well-respected scientists including the former President of India Dr A P J Abdul Kalam were part of that effort. An Expert Group that went into safety aspects presented its report to the State Government. That report addressed how the Fukushima meltdown happened and how the design of the Kudankulam plant does not allow for that kind of events to happen. The Japanese plant was shut down when the 9.03 Richter scale temblor hit the North Eastern Japanese island; the six tsunami waves that followed cut off power supply to the plant that resulted in a level-7 meltdown. The earthquake was so powerful that it moved the entire main island of Japan, Honshu, by 8 ft and shifted the earth on its axis. Of note is the fact that entire Japan sits on seismic zone 5, while Indian authorities says Kudankulam sits on zone 2, the least prone to earthquakes.

When the Boxing Day tsunami, caused by a 9.1-earthquake off Sumatra, Indonesia, struck the Eastern Coasts of the Indian peninsula, two nuclear establishments saw some flooding. The Madras Atomic Power Station (MAPS) at Kalpakkam (70 km from Madras) was minimally affected. Water entered one of the 220 MW plants, which had been manually shut down safely. The residential colonies for the workers fared worse with five employees of the Madras Atomic Power Station drowning..

Kudankulam plant also saw tsunami water entering its incomplete premises. Kudankulam's neighbouring fishing villages were minimally affected by the tsunami.

The Expert Committee then pointed out the low seismicity of the region, the plant safety features including the higher elevation of the building and diesel generator to cool, double containment, measures to prevent explosions caused by release of hydrogen gas, like those that happened in Fukushima, to prove their point that Kudankulam is no Fukushima waiting-to-happen. The Nuclear Establishment has also agreed to implement the safety plan that the International Atomic Energy Agency proposed. Yet, these assurances were not good enough for the protesters.

The activists still demanded that the project be scrapped and even sought that the blueprint of the reactor be made public, an unprecedented step. This time around they also wanted it scrapped on the basis that it went against public sentiment. Their rhetoric revolves around nationalistic sentiments of Tamils and has received widespread support among parties that have espoused those values. After the main parties of Tamil Nadu, the ruling AIADMK and the DMK, toed the line of the expert group report, the Tamil Nationalistic PMK and the MDMK have extended support. This movement has also attracted the attention of supremacist elements involved in the Tamil separatist movement, like Naam Thamizhar Iyakkam.

CLOSE TO COMMISSIONING

While the Nuclear Establishment was looking at an October 2012 commissioning, the residents, organised under the umbrella of People's Movement Against Nuclear Energy (PMANE), filed a case in the High Court seeking the scrapping of the project. When that case was thrown out, they went to the Supreme Court to stop the loading of fuel into the plant. The court refused to stop the loading, but reserved its order pending the satisfaction of safety norms.

The residents then resorted to a sea siege. There were many incidents of disturbances of law and order, including a charge against peacefully protesting villagers. The atmosphere around Kudankulam continued to be rife with rumours.

With the plant expected to be commissioned by the following month, local media started reporting leakage of radiation claiming 40 lives. Those reports were then rescinded the next day and apologies issued. Sri Lankan anti-nuclear groups became involved at this stage claiming leaks and the Sri Lankan Atomic Energy Authority, which has radiation detectors installed near the Indian coast, had to issue a denial.

MOVING TOWARD TRANSPARENCY

In the last decade, India has signed the 123 Indo-US Nuclear Treaty with the USA, which mandates it to separate civil and military nuclear facilities and to open up its civil facilities to scrutiny by the IAEA.

As a last step of activating the pact, the government had to legislate The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010. With these steps the Nuclear Establishment of India hoped it could work toward removing some of the cynicism about its safety record and accusation of secrecy. These measures, however, have not even been recognised by the anti-nuclear movements in the country that quote the example of Germany and wants India to stop all civil nuclear energy efforts.

Those for nuclear energy have also demanded greater transparency in the working of the Nuclear Establishment. Most of the officials from the regulatory body, AERB, are from the nuclear establishments themselves. That expertise on nuclear energy does not exist outside the realms of the Department of Atomic Energy has been a concern. Many of the dialogues between the establishment and anti-nuclear activists have therefore been trenchantly inimical - a rather technical “he said-she said” than ones trying to move towards consensus building. And the one catastrophe that Kudankulam has already left us with is that of public relations.

For instance, the first ever nuclear project to have undergone a public hearing was the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor in 2001. When the public hearing was on in the presence of the Kancheepuram district Collector, the anti-nuclear groups organised residents to complain of the incidence of congenital deformities, believed to have been caused by radiation. These were listed by Doctors for Safer Environment. The then Collector, also a medical doctor, had requested that these be documented instead of blanket accusations being levelled. However, when this reporter spoke to those doctors and asked why the report was not published in a peer-reviewed journal, instead of being presented to journalists first, they were reluctant to answer questions.

On the other hand, the Nuclear Establishment maintains that radiation levels in Kalpakkam were much below those minimum requirements mandated by the AERB and that they are much below background radiation already present.

In recent times, the anti-nuclear protesters have also called into question the design/safety criteria that were taken into account during the design process.  Most reactors were designed taking into account storm surges, given that the east coast is prone to cyclones. But that the entire region is considered to be low-seismicity zone and not tsunami prone, unlike the Pacific Ocean, is pointed out as a poor design factor. Protesters have also put forth the view that a scientific body like the DAE and its constituents cannot afford to pick its safety concerns. It is true that these contentions of theirs have not been sufficiently addressed by the establishment.

Since the fuel loading in October 2012, NPCIL has run many tests and has submitted their results to AERB. The AERB has also called for many tests to be done in thoroughness. People who are observing the process see it as strategies to assuage the Supreme Court, where a PIL against the KKNPP filed by Prashant Bhushan in September 2012 is still pending. The Supreme Court had observed that the plant could be put on hold at this stage - when it is about to be commissioned - if it is not satisfied with the safety measures.

In all of this, the commissioning of the plant has simply been pushed beyond one deadline to another; The AERB has been periodically stating that the plant would be commissioned shortly; now, the latest assurance comes from Prime Minister Manmohan Singh who has promised Russian president Vladimir Putin that the plant will be operational this month.  However, given the long history of roadblocks, and the fact that the verdict of the Supreme Court in the case against the power plant is still pending, one can only wait to see when the assurance becomes reality.

FALKLAND ISLANDS DISPUTE

Sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas in Spanish) is disputed between Argentina and the United Kingdom. The British claim to sovereignty dates from 1690, and the United Kingdom has exercised de facto sovereignty over the archipelago almost continuously since 1833. Argentina has long disputed this claim, having been in control of the islands for a brief period prior to 1833. The dispute escalated in 1982, when Argentina invaded the islands, precipitating the Falklands War. Contemporary Falkland Islanders prefer to remain British. They gained full British citizenship with the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983, after the Falklands War.

French Settlement

France was the first country to establish de facto control in the Falkland Islands, with the foundation of Port Saint Louis in East Falkland by French nobleman, Louis Antoine de Bougainville, in 1764. The French colony consisted of a small fort and some settlements with a population of around 250. The Islands were named after the Breton port of St. Malo as the ÎlesMalouines, which remains theFrench name for the islands. In 1766, France agreed to leave the islands to Spain, with Spain reimbursing de Bougainville and the St. Malo Company for the cost of the settlement.[1][2] France insisted that Spain maintain the colony in Port Louis and thus prevent Britain from claiming the title to the Islands and Spain agreed.

Spanish Settlement

In 1493 the Pope Alexander VI issued a Papal bull, Inter caetera, dividing the New World between Spain and Portugal. The following year, the Treaty of Tordesillas between those countries agreed that the dividing line between the two should be 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands.[4] The Falklands lie on the western (Spanish) side of this line. Spain made claims that the Falkland Islands were held under provisions in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht which settled the limits of the Spanish Empire in the Americas. However, the treaty only promised to restorethe territories in the Americas held prior to the War of the Spanish Succession. The Falkland Islands was not held at the time, and were not mentioned in the treaty. From 1774 to 1811, the islands were ruled as part of the Viceroyalty of the River Plate. In that  period, 18 governors were appointed to rule the islands. In 1777, Governor Ramon de Carassa was ordered to destroy the remains at Port Egmont. The British plaque was removed and sent to Buenos Aires.

British Settlements

The British first landed on the Falklands in 1690, when Captain John Strong sailed through Falkland Sound, naming this passage of water after Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount of Falkland, the First Lord of the Admiralty at that time. In 1770 a Spanish military expedition was sent to the islands after authorities in Buenos Aires became aware of the British colony. Facing a greater force, the British were expelled from

Port Egmont. The colony was restored a year later following British threats of war over the islands. However, in 1774, economic pressures leading up to the American Revolutionary War forcedGreat Britainto withdraw from the Falklands along with many of its other overseas settlements. By 1776 the British had left Port Egmont, leaving behind a plaque asserting British sovereignty over the islands.Although there was no Britishadministration in the islands, British and American sealers routinely used them to hunt for seals, also taking on fresh water as well as feral cattle, pigs and even penguins for provisions. Whalers also used the islands to shelter from the South Atlantic weather and to take on fresh provisions.

On 2 January 1833, Captain James Onslow, of the brig-sloop HMS Clio, arrived at the Spanish settlement at Port Louis to request that the Argentine flag be replaced with the British one, and for the Argentine administration to leave the islands. While Argentine Lt. Col. José María Pinedo, commander of the Argentine schooner Sarandí, wanted to resist, his numerical disadvantage was obvious, particularly as a large number of his crew were British mercenaries who were unwilling to fight their own countrymen. The colony was set up and the islands continued under a British presence until the Falklands War. After their return in 1833, the British began moves to begin a fullyfledged colony on the islands, initially based upon the settlers remaining in Port Louis. Vernet’s deputy, Matthew Brisbane, returned later that year to take charge of the settlement and was encouraged to further Vernet’s business interests provided he did not seek to assert Argentine Government authority.

A British colonial administration was formed in 1842. This was expanded in 1908, when in addition to South Georgiaclaimed in 1775, and the South Shetland Islands claimed in 1820 the UK unilaterally declared sovereignty over more Antarctic territory south of the Falklands, including the South  Sandwich Islands, the South Orkney Islands, and Graham Land, grouping them into the Falkland Islands Dependencies. In 1850, the Arana- Southern Treaty otherwise known as the Convention of Settlement was signed between Britain and Argentina. The Convention was referred to as a “peace treaty”. The Convention of Settlement ended Argentina’s protests over the Falklands. After the Message to Congress in December 1849, the Falklands were not mentioned again in the Messages to Congress for 91 years until 1941.

Following the introduction of the Antarctic Treaty System in 1959 the Falkland Island Dependencies were reduced to include South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. In 1976 the British Government commissioned a study on the future of the Falklands, looking at the ability of the Islands to sustain themselves, and the potential for economic development.

Argentine Settlements

Argentina declared its independence from Spain in 1816, although this was not then recognised by any of the major powers. Britain informally recognized Argentine independence on 15 December 1823, as the “province of Buenos Aires”, and formally recognised it on 2 February 1825, but like the US did not recognise the full extent of the territory claimed by the new state. The new state, the United Provinces of the River Plate, was formed by provinces of the former Viceroyalty of the River Plate and as such claimed sovereignty over the Falklands.

In October 1820, the frigate Heroína, under the command of American privateer Colonel David Jewett, arrived in Puerto Soledad following an eight-month voyage and with most of her crew incapacitated by scurvy and disease. A storm had severely damaged the Heroína and had sunk a Portuguese ship pirated by Jewett called the Carlota, forcing the Heroina to put into Puerto Soledad for repairs. The captain chose to rest and recover in the islands, seeking assistance from the British explorer James Weddell. Weddell reported that only thirty seamen and forty soldiers out of a complement of two hundred were fit for duty, and that Jewett slept with pistols over his head following an attempted mutiny. On 6 November 1820, Jewett raised the flag of the United Provinces of the River Plate and claimed possession of the islands for the new state.

Luis Vernet, controversially appointed Military and Civil Commander of Falkland Islands and the Islands adjacent to Cape Horn in 1829. In 1823, the Buenos Aires government granted land on East Falkland to Jorge Pacheco, a businessman from Buenos Aires who owed money to the merchant Luis Vernet. A first expedition travelled to the islands the following year, arriving on the East Falkland Island February 2nd, 1824, but failed almost as soon as it landed[citation needed]. Its leader was Pablo Areguatí, who brought with him 25 gauchos. Ten days later Areguatí wrote that the colony was perishing because the horses they had brought were too weak to be used, thus they could not capture wild cattle and their only other means of subsistence were wild rabbits. June 7th, Areguatí left the islands, taking with him 17 gauchos. July 24th, the remaining 8 gauchos were rescued by the Susannah Anne, a British sealer. After the failure, Pacheco agreed to sell his share to Vernet.

A second attempt, in 1826, sanctioned by the British[citation needed] (but delayed until winter by a Brazilian blockade), also failed after arrival in the islands.[citation needed] In 1828, the Buenos Aires government granted Vernet all of East Falkland, including all its resources, with exemption from taxation for 20 years, if a colony could be established within three years. He took settlers, including British Captain Matthew Brisbane, and before leaving once again sought permission from the British Consulate in Buenos Aires. The British asked for a report on the islands for the British government, and Vernet asked for British protection should they return.

On Vernet’s return to the Falklands, Puerto Soledad was renamed Puerto Luis. The Buenos Aires Government, headed by General Juan Galo de Lavalle (who took the governorship by force on December 1st, 1828, and executed the elected governor Manuel Dorrego) appointed Vernet “Political and Military Commander” in a decree of June 13th, 1829. The British objected as an Argentine attempt to foster political and economic ties to the islands. One of Vernet’s first acts was to curb seal hunting on the Islands to conserve the dwindling seal population. In response, the British consul at Buenos Aires protested the move and restated the claim of his government. Islanders were born during this period (including Malvina María Vernet y Saez, Vernet’s daughter).

Relation of Biotechnology with other Branches of Sciences

Following are some of the field s where biotechnology innovations are playing important roles:

1. Tissue Culture Techniques in Biotechnology:

An important aspect of all biotechnology processes is the culture of either the microorganism or plant or animal cells or tissues and organs in artificial media. While members in culture are used in recombinant DNA technology and in variety of industrial processes, plant cells and tissues are used for a variety of genetic manupulation. For example , another culture is used for haploid breeding , gametic and somatic cell or tissue culture are used for tapping gametoclonal and Somaclonal variation or for production of artificial seeds. Transformation of protoplast in culture leads to production of useful transgenic plants.

2. Gene Technology as a Tool for Biotechnology:

Most biotechnology companies make use of gene technology or genetic engineering which involves recombinant DNA and gene cloning. Most recently, extensive use of newly discovered polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has also been made for gene technology.

3. Hybridization and Monoclonal Antibodies in Biotechnology:

Rapid progress has been made in hybridoma technique and monoclonal antibodies which is extremely used in human health care. Enzyme conjugated antibodies are being used for detection of viruses both in plants and animals using ELISA test. Immunotixins are being produced from gene fusion so that the toxic drugs meant for killing tumour cells may be carried to the target sites with the help of specific antibodies.

4. Biotechnology in Medicine:

  In the field of medicine, insulin and interferon synthesized by bacteria have already been released for use. A large number of vaccines for immunization against deadly diseases, DNA probes and monoclonal antibodies for diagnosis of various disease, and human growth hormone and other pharmaceutical drugs for treatment of disease are being released.

5. Biotechnology and Protein Engineering:

Protein engineering will lead to production of superior enzymes and storage proteins. Biochemistry has also provided us with remarkable in the form of immobilized enzymes system, which allowed the production of variety of substances. E.g. High- fructose corn syrup using an immobilized enzyme, glucose isomerase.

6. Biotechnology in Agriculture:

Biotechnology has also revolutionized research activities in the area of agriculture which include following:

i) Plant cell, tissue and organ culture.

ii) Genetic engineering leading to transformation followed by regeneration of plants to give transgenic plants carrying desirable traits like disease resistance, insect resistance and herbicide resistance.

iii) Somatic hybrids between sexually incompatible species permitting transfer of desirable traits from wild or unrelated species to our crop plants.

iv) Transgenic animals produced in mice, pigs, goats, chicken, cows, etc. It is suggested that some of these will eventually be used as bioreactor to produce drugs through their milk, blood or urine, this area has sometimes been described as molecular farming.

7. Biotechnology and Environment:

Biotechnology methods have been devised for some environmental problems like i) Pollution control ii) depletion of natural resources for non-renewable energy. iii) restoration of degraded lands and iv) biodiversity conservation. For instance, microbes are being developed to be used as bio pesticides, bio fertilizers. Biosensors etc and for recovery of metals, cleaning of spilled oils, etc.

बायौगैस उर्जा

 अर्थशास्त्रियों के अनुसार यदि एक बैरल कच्चे तेल की कीमत में एक डालर की वृद्वि होती है तो भारत के तेल आयात बिल में 425 मिलियन डॉलर का अतिरिक्त व्यय जुड़ जाता है अर्थात तेल की कीमतों में वृध्दि का सीधा असर हमारे मुद्रा भण्डार पर पड़ता है।

इन दिनों तेल कीमतों में उफान जारी और जल्दी ही सार्वकालिक उचाईयो पर पहुचने की संभावना हैं, तेल की ये कीमतें हमारे घरेलू और बाहरी दोनों मोर्चो को बुरी तरह से प्रभावित करेंगी। तेल के बाद कोयला हमारे उर्जा भण्डार की महत्तवपूर्ण इकाई है। तेल और कोयला दोनों जीवाष्म ईंधन हैं जो हमारे देश की उर्जा की जरूरतों को पूरा करतें हैं लेकिन इनके भण्डार अब खत्म होने की ओर हैं जिससे ये महॅगें हो रहें हैं। इन जीवाष्म ईधनों के दहन से ग्रीन हाउस गैसों का उत्सर्जन होता है जिससे उत्पन्न हो रही ग्लोबल वार्मिंग की समस्या से दुनिया भर में त्राहि त्राहि मचने वाली है। जीवाष्म ईधनों की दुर्लभता तथा ग्लोबल वार्मिंग की बढ़ती समस्या ने विश्व का ध्यान उर्जा के अपारंपरिक स्त्रोंतो की ओर आकृष्ट किया है। अब कच्चे तेल की जगह बायोडीजल जैसे विकल्पों पर जोर दिया जा रहा है जिसमें खाद्य और अख्द्य तेलों का उपयोग किया जा रहा है, कोयले के स्थान पर परमाणु उर्जा और जल विद्युत परियोंजनाओं पर जोर दिया जा रहा है। परन्तु इनमें खाद्य तेलों की बढ़ती कीमतें, परमाण्वीय रिसाव के खतरें और बड़ बॉधों से अनेक समस्याए सामने आ रहीं है।

ऊर्जा के इन स्त्रोंतो मे मौजूद अच्छाईयों और बुराईयों के बीच हमारे पास एक ऐसा संसाधान भी उपलब्ध है जो पूर्णत: निरापद है वह संसाधन है-गौवंश ! हमारे देश में उपलब्ध 22 करोड़ गौवंश हमारी उर्जा की तमाम जरूरतें पूरी करने में सक्षम है। वैसे भी हमारे देश में गौवंश प्राचीनकाल से ही ईधन और परिवहन में उर्जा का एक महत्वपूर्ण संसाधन रहा है। आज भी देश की लगभग 18 फीसदी आबादी गोबर के उपलों से अपनी ईधन की जरूरतें पूरा करती है तथा देश में उपलब्ध लगभग 1.5 करोड़ बैल गाड़ियॉ ग्रामीण परिवहन व्यवस्था का महत्वपूर्ण हिस्सा है। वर्तमान में वैज्ञानिक तकनीकों के प्रयोग से गौवंश ऊर्जा अक्षय स्त्रोत बन गया है। बायौगैस उर्जा की आवश्यकता पूर्ति का एक सहज और पर्यावरण सम्मत संसाधन है इसमें पशुओं के मल,मूत्र और कृषि अवशिष्ट का उपयोग किया जाता है जो कि गॉव में सहजता से उपल्ब्ध है। बायौगैस की मदद से सम्पूर्ण ग्रामीण भारत के लिए ईधन और प्रकाश के लिए आवश्यक उर्जा की आपूर्ति की जा सकती है। बायौगैस में 60-65 फीसदी मीथेन, 35-40 फीसदी कार्बन डाय आक्साइडड, 0.5-1.0 फीसदी हाइड्रोजनसल्फाइड तथा सूक्ष्म मात्रा में जलवाष्प मौजूद रहती है। बायोगैस में किण्वन प्रयिा के जरिए गोबर तथा अवशिष्टों मे मौजूद जटिल कार्बनिक अणु मीथेन गैस में परिवर्तित हो जाते हैं जो कि एक वलनशील गैस है तथा जिसका कैलोरीमान 4800किलो कैलोरी प्रति घनमीटर है। हमारे देश में प्रतिवर्ष लगभग 150 करोड़ टन गोबर उपलब्ध है जिससे लगभग 7 अरब घनमीटर बायौगैस उत्पन्न की जा सकती है। वर्तमान बायोगैस का उपयोग भोजन पकाने,रोशनी करने तथा जनरेटर के जरिए इंजनों को चलाने में किया जाता है। उल्लेखनीय है कि देश भर में काम कर रहे छोटे बायोगैस संयत्रों के कारण प्रतिवर्ष लगभग 40 लाख टन जलाऊ लकड़ी की बचत होती है। ईधन और प्रकाश के साथ छोटे,दोहरे ईंधन वाले इंजनों को भी चलाने के लिए भी बायोगैस का प्रयोग किया जा रहा है,इन इंजनों में 80 फीसदी डीजल को बायोगैस द्वारा प्रतिस्थापित किया जा रहा है, इस तरह डीजल की 80फीसदी तक बचत संभव हो गई है। आई आई टी दिल्ली द्वारा विकसित की गई तकनीक से कार,तिपहिया वाहनों का बायोगैस से चालन संभव हो गया है। इस तकनीक के जरिए बायोगैस में मौजूद कार्बन डाय आक्साइडड, हाइड्रोजनसल्फाइड तथा जलवाष्प को हटा दिया जाता है तथा शेष मीथेन गैस को गैस कम्प्रेशर द्वारा सम्पीड़ित किया जाता है। इस सम्पीड़ित गैस को उच्च दाब वाले स्टील सिलेंडरों में भण्डारित कर लिया जाता है फिर इन सिलेंण्डरों का उपयोग वाहनों,सिंचाई पम्पों और उद्योगों में आसानी से किया जा सकता है। एक ऑकलन के अनुसार 120 घनमीटर क्षमता के एक बायोगैस संयंत्र से प्रतिदिन 6 कि.ग्रा. के 8 सिलेण्डर भरे जा सकते हैं जिससे करीब 50 लीटर डीजल की बचत संभव है अर्थात एक वर्ष में 18000 लीटर डीजल की बचत है। मीथेन गैस की बॉटलिंग प्रयिा में 5 रूपये प्रतिकिलोग्राम की दर से व्यय आता है, इस क्षेत्र में कार्यरत विशेषज्ञों का ऑकलन है कि एक गाय एक वर्ष में इतना गोबर देती है कि उससे तैयार होने वाली मीथेन गैस 225 लीटर डीजल के बराबर उर्जा दे सकती है। इस प्रकार हमारे देश में उपलब्ध 22 करोड़ गौवंश के जरिए उत्पन्न मीथेन गैस से कच्चे तेल की समस्या से मुक्ति पाई जा सकती है। कार्बनडायआक्साइड के अनेक औद्योगिक उपयोग है जो कि वायोगैस के पृथक्कीकरण में प्राप्त होती है इसका व्यवसाय भी संभव है। रासायनिक उर्वरकों में भी कच्चे तेल का उपयोग होता है जबकि बायोगैस की स्लरी एक श्रेष्ठ उर्वरक है जो कि सस्ता और सहज उपलब्ध है। देश में उपलब्ध गोबरयुक्त बायोमास से लगभग 50 हजार मेगावाट बिजली बनाई जा सकती है। वास्तव में देश उपलब्ध गौवंश उर्जा संबंधी आवश्यकताओं को पूर्ण करने में सक्षम है। बस गौवंश के संरक्षण, शोध और योजनाओं के क्रियान्वयन की जरूरत है।

Plant Biotechnology

What is Plant Biotechnology?

The origin of Biotechnology can be traced back to prehistoric times, when microorganisms were already used for processes like fermentation. In 1920’s Clostridium acetobutylicum was used by Chaim Weizman for converting starch into butanol and acetone, latter was an essential component of explosive during World War- II. This raised hopes for commercial production of useful chemicals through biological processes, and may be considered as the first rediscovery of biotechnology in the present century. Similarly, during World War-II ( in 1940’s) , the production of penicillin (as an antibiotic discovered by Alexaner Flemming in 1929) on a large scale from cultures of Penicillium notatum marked the second rediscovery of biotechnology. The third rediscovery of biotechnology is its recent reincarnation in the form of recombinant –DNA technology, which led to the development of a variety of gene technologies and is thus considered to be greatest scientific revolution of this century. Biotechnologies, as world indicate, is the product of interaction between the science and technology.

Definition of Plant Biotechnology:

1. Biotechnology is the application of biological organisms, system or processes to manufacturing and service industries.

2. Biotechnology is the integrated use of biochemistry , microbiology and engineering science in order to achieve technological application of the capabilities of micro-organism, cultured tissue cells and part thereof.

3. Biotechnology is “a technology using biological phenomenon for copying and manufacturing various kinds of useful substances.”

4. Biotechnology is “the controlled use of biological agents such as micro-organisms or cellular components for beneficial use. (U.S National Science Foundation)

Broad Categories of Biotechnology

The new biotechnology may be classified into the following four broad categories:

1. Techniques for cell and tissue culture likely to produce substantial impact on agriculture.

2. Technological development associated with fermentation processes, particularly those in the chemical sector which include the enzyme immobilization technique. These techniques are already creating some impact in several industrial branches. E.g. Production of enzymes and amino acids.

3. Techniques that apply microbiology for the screening, election and cultivation of cells and micro-organisms.

4. Techniques for the manupulation and transfer of genetic material.

Characteristics of Biotechnology

Any technological revolution usually has the following five characteristics:

1. A drastic reduction in the cost of several products and services.

2. A dramatic improvements in the technical properties of processes and products.

3. Social and political acceptability in the sense that innovation is socially accepted but it involves modification in the legislative and regulatory patterns of society and some changes in management and labour attitude.

4. Environment acceptability.

5. Pervasive effects brought the economic system.

Recent advances in biotechnology have been exploited in a variety of ways both for production of industrial , important biochemical and for basic studies in molecular biology.

Socialism

Socialism defined as a centrally planned economy in which the government controls all means of production—was the tragic failure of the twentieth century. Born of a commitment to remedy the economic and moral defects of CAPITALISM, it has far surpassed capitalism in both economic malfunction and moral cruelty. Yet the idea and the ideal of socialism linger on. Whether socialism in some form will eventually return as a major organizing force in human affairs is unknown, but no one can accurately appraise its  prospects who has not taken into account the dramatic story of its rise and fall.

The term socialism is derived from the word from the word socious which means society. Socialism prior concern is society and the injustice of the capitalist system that has inspired its origin. It is aeration against social and economic anarchy which the capitalist system has had produced. It is revolt against the exploitation of man by man and of child in field, factory, mine and workshop. It is challenge to society divided into two halves or classes-haves or have not and dragged mankind into perpetual conflicts and wars. Socialism has spread worldwide and emerged many school of socialism and each school has its own name and advocated its own point of view such as Fabianism in Britain, Syndicalism in France, Guild socialism in Britain. Socialism emerged as a political movement of class which aims to abolish exploitation of capitalism by using tools of the collective ownership and democratic management relied on instrument of production and distribution. It pays attention at securing an economic objective of any country. Socialism is the organization of workers which promotes the conquest of worker class, provide them political power so as to transform capitalist property into social prosperity. Socialism consider society as a whole and promotes the general well-being for all.

History of Socialism

Thomas More coined the term "utopia" in 1515 in his treatise titled "Utopia," but utopian imaginings began long before his. Platodescribed a similar environment when he wrote the philosophical work "Republic" in 360 B.C. In 1627, Francis Bacon's "New Atlantis" advocated a more scientific approach, rooted in the scientific method. Bacon envisioned a research-institute-like society where inhabitants studied science in an effort to create a harmonious environment through their accumulation of knowledge. In addition to these landmark works, more than 40 utopian-themed novels were published from 1700 to 1850, cementing its status as a very popular ideal [source: Foner]. Because many social injustices -- such as slaveryand oppression -- were running rampant, the theme was quite popular among embittered and dispirited populations.

While a French revolutionary named François Noël Babeuf is credited with the idea of doing away with private property to create equality and is often considered the first socialist, the concept wasn't popularized until the late 1700s, when the Industrial Revolutioncaused some drastic changes around the world.

The revolution marked a shift from agricultural societies to modern industries, in which tools were eschewed in favor of cutting-edge machinery. Factories and railways sprung up, resulting in tremendous wealth for the owners of these industries. While they profited from these changes, workers were thrown into sudden poverty due to a lack of jobs as machines began to replace human labor. Many people feared that this discrepancy in income would continue to spread, making the rich richer and the poor poorer.

This fear created unrest among the working class. Poor housing, coupled with bad working conditions and slave labor (which was still rampant in the United States and other countries), contributed to the desire for a more equal society. As a result, socialist ideals quickly became popular among the impoverished workers. Communes such as Brook Farm and New Harmony began popping up in the United States and Europe. These small communities abided by socialist principles and worked to avoid the class struggles that controlled the rest of the world. New Harmony was considered a center of scientific thought and boasted the United States' first free library, public school and kindergarten.

Despite the presence of small communes and the spread of socialist thought, socialism remained largely an idea, rather than reality. Soviet dictator Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was the first leader to put socialism to the test. Though he was a communist (a branch of socialism that used militant action to overthrow the upper class and government to achieve a utopian society), Lenin implemented many socialist initiatives in the Soviet Union after his takeover in 1917. These included forced nationalization of industry and collectivization of agriculture. Lenin's programs were not profitable, and he eventually resorted to a mixed economy. Communism is sometimes referred to as revolutionary socialism for its aggressive tactics. Although there are fundamental differences between the two theories, communism and socialism both aim to eliminate class struggles by encouraging government or state control of production and distribution.

The post-World War I era saw a rise in democratic socialism in Europe. Socialist parties became active in the governments of Germany, Sweden, the Netherlands, Belgium and Great Britain. Socialism also became popular in portions of Africa, Latin America and Asia

.

Forms of Socialism- There are different forms of socialism which are given below.

Utopian Socialism

Dreamers who have sought to improve our imperfect world are scattered across the pages of history. Sir Thomas More (1478--1535), a Catholic saint and martyr who served as an advisor to England's Henry VIII, was one such dreamer. More's famous book Utopia borrowed a Greek word meaning "no place." Today, utopian commonly refers to unrealistic ideals. More blamed poverty, waste, and avarice on private property, and proposed the creation of "Utopia," where everyone would share everything.

Utopian socialism is the idea that collective ownership eliminates greed and promotes personal growth, cultural enrichment, and democracy.

People would work for the common good in jobs of their choice. Prices would be superfluous, because there would be as much joy from giving as from receiving; supplying and demanding would be equally satisfying.

More's ideas were largely ignored until early in the nineteenth century, when social ferment and the prospect of revolution swept Europe. Utopian socialism bloomed. Prominent utopians of this period included the French philosopher Charles Fourier (1772--1837) and the philanthropist Robert Owen (1771--1858). Owen, though born into poverty, became wealthy as a Scottish cotton-mill owner while still in his twenties. Infatuated with the utopian vision, he financed several self-contained, communally owned villages in Scotland and the United States. Neat rows of houses, free education, better working conditions, and wages in proportion to hours worked attracted thousands of people to this grand experiment. But all utopian communities of this period were (predictably?) poorly managed and uniformly failed.

It seems ironic that some of Owen's dreams were integrated into public policies in many modern mixed economies. Free public education, socialized medicine in much of Europe and medical insurance in the United States, healthier working conditions, and substantial parts of our current welfare system can all be traced to utopian goals.

Marxian socialism

In Marxist theory, socialism, lower-stage communism or the socialist mode of production refers to a specific historical phase of economic development and its corresponding set of social relations that eventually supersede capitalism in the schema of historical materialism. In this definition, socialism is defined as a mode of production where the criterion for production is use-value, where production for use is coordinated through conscious economic planning and the law of value no longer directs economic activity. Socialism would be based on the principle of To each according to his contribution. The social relations of socialism are characterized by the working-class effectively controlling and owning the means of production and the means of their livelihood either through cooperative enterprises or public ownership and self management, so that the social surplus would accrue to the working class or society as a whole.

This view is consistent with, and helped to inform, early conceptions of socialism where the law of value no longer directs economic activity, and thus monetary relations in the form of exchange-value, profit, interest and wage labor would not operate and apply to socialism.

The Marxian conception of socialism stood in contrast to other early conceptions of socialism, most notably early forms of market socialism based on classical economics including Mutualism and Ricardian socialism, which unlike the Marxian conception, retained commodity exchange and markets for labor and the means of production. The Marxian conception was also heavily opposed to Utopian socialism.

Although Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels wrote very little on socialism and neglected to provide any details on how it might be organized, numerous Marxists and neoclassical economists used Marx's theory as a basis for developing their own models and proposals for socialist economic systems and served as a point of reference for the socialist calculation debate.

Christian socialism

Many prominent socialists were militant atheists, for example, but others expressly connected socialism to religion. Even the rationalist Saint-Simon had called for a “new Christianity” that would join Christian social teachings with modern science and industry to create a society that would satisfy basic human needs. His followers attempted to put this idea into practice, giving rise to a Saint-Simonian sect sometimes called “the religion of the engineers.” This combination of an appeal to universal brotherhood and a faith in enlightened management also animated the best-selling utopian novel Looking Backward (1888), by the American journalist Edward Bellamy. In England the Anglican clergymen Frederick Denison Maurice and Charles Kingsley initiated a Christian socialist movement at the end of the 1840s on the grounds that the competitive individualism of laissez-faire capitalism was incompatible with the spirit of Christianity. The connection between Christianity and socialism persisted through the 20th century. One manifestation of this connection was liberation theology—sometimes characterized as an attempt to marry Marx and Jesus—which emerged among Roman Catholic theologians in Latin America in the 1960s. Another, perhaps more modest, manifestation is the Christian Socialist Movement in Britain, which affiliates itself with the British Labour Party. Several members of Parliament have belonged to the Christian Socialist Movement, including Prime Minister Gordon Brown, the son of a Methodist minister, and his predecessor, Tony Blair, an Anglican who converted to Catholicism not long after he left office.

Fabian Socialism

Founded in England in 1884, the Fabian Society jettisoned the utopian ideal of small communities, urging instead nationalization of heavy industry and municipal ownership of public utilities. Otherwise, their agenda echoed many reforms proposed by utopians: universal suffrage, income redistribution, free education and medical care, and laws to ensure safe work environments, forbid child labor, and limit women's working hours.

The early Fabians included such prominent intellectuals as playwright George Bernard Shaw, science fiction writer H. G. Wells, historian G. D. H. Cole, and Sidney and Beatrice Webb, a married team of economists. This small band grew and, as it collected members who were active in the British union movement, evolved into the present Labour party, which dominated the British government from World War I until 1980. Many advocates of capitalism blamed the Labour party's policies of nationalization for technological obsolescence and the sluggish growth of the British economy. They credit massive privatization since 1980 for the modern resurgence of British industry.

Guild socialism

Related to syndicalism but nearer to Fabianism in its reformist tactics, Guild Socialism was an English movement that attracted a modest following in the first two decades of the 20th century. Inspired by the medieval guild, an association of craftsmen who determined their own working conditions and activities, theorists such as Samuel G. Hobson and G.D.H. Cole advocated the public ownership of industries and their organization into guilds, each of which would be under the democratic control of its trade union. The role of the state was less clear: some guild socialists envisioned it as a coordinator of the guilds’ activities, while others held that its functions should be limited to protection or policing. In general, however, the guild socialists were less inclined to invest power in the state than were their Fabian compatriots.

Anarcho-communism

Anarcho- communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, capitalism, wages and private property and in favor of common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy, and a horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need".

Some forms of anarchist communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are strongly influenced by egoism and radical individualism, believing anarcho-communism is the best social system for the realization of individual freedom. Some anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.

Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French Revolution but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International. The theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organization list and insurrectionary anti-organization list sections.

To date, the best-known examples of an anarchist communist society (i.e., established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon), are the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution and the Free Territory during the Russian Revolution. Through the efforts and influence of the Spanish Anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War, starting in 1936 anarchist communism existed in most of Aragon, parts of the Levante and Andalusia, as well as in the stronghold of Anarchist Catalonia before being crushed by the combined forces of the regime that won the war, Hitler, Mussolini, Spanish Communist Party repression (backed by the USSR) as well as economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Second Spanish Republic itself. During the Russian Revolution, anarchists such as Nestor Makhno worked to create and defend—through the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine—anarchist communism in the Free Territory of the Ukraine from 1919 before being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921.

Syndicalism

Near the anarcho-communists on the decentralist side of socialism were the syndicalists. Inspired in part by Proudhon’s ideas, syndicalism developed at the end of the 19th century out of the French trade-union movement—syndicat being the French word for trade union. It was a significant force in Italy and Spain in the early 20th century until it was crushed by the fascist regimes in those countries. In the United States, syndicalism appeared in the guise of the Industrial Workers of the World, or “Wobblies,” founded in 1905.

The hallmarks of syndicalism were workers’ control and “direct action.” Syndicalists such as Fernand Pelloutier distrusted both the state, which they regarded as an agent of capitalism, and political parties, which they thought were incapable of achieving radical change. Their aim was to replace capitalism and the state with a loose federation of local workers’ groups, which they meant to bring about through direct action—especially a general strike of workers that would bring down the government as it brought the economy to a halt. Georges Sorel elaborated on this idea in his Réflexions sur la violence (1908; Reflections on Violence), in which he treated the general strike not as the inevitable result of social developments but as a “myth” that could lead to the overthrow of capitalism if only enough people could be inspired to act on it.

Socialism effect on society

Positive effect of socialism -

A Fair System

Socialism gives equal distribution of national wealth and provides everyone with equal opportunities, irrespective of their, color, caste, creed or economic status. Socialism, in its truest sense, means equality by all means.

Eliminates Social Evils

Socialism reduces poverty with eatable wealth distribution. It also eliminates ill health, as it lays the foundation for the availability of proper health facilities for everyone. Socialism eliminates other forms of social deprivation too, by caring for everyone.

Reducing Disparities

Socialism reduces the social, economic, and political inequalities that exist within capitalist societies. By taking the ownerships of production units from the rich and presenting them to the workers, the government gives the workers a chance to earn more profits and thus rise to levels of economic well being.

More Humane & True

The effort to make everybody equal in economic, social, and political terms makes socialism more morally worthwhile than capitalism. It reinforces the fact that everyone was created equally and it was only through human actions that disparities arose.

Improved Standard Of Living

The idea behind socialism is to bring up the living standards of the poorest. It actually works towards raising the living standards to similar levels, as the better-off members of the respective societies.

Unity

As people work for a common cause and all the profits are shared equally, the feeling of selfishness is eliminated and a united feeling is gained. Plus, since socialism bars the difference caused on the grounds of color, sex, creed or religion, harmony and unity become the keywords for the countrymen.

Creates Better Human Resources

As all people, irrespective of their differences, are provided extensive public services and better facilities, they achieve their full potential. Better education facilities for all also help in creating better human resource. Manpower doubles, thus doubling the country’s economic growth, as everyone works towards a life of betterment.

Negative effect  Of Socialism

Unreal Theory

True socialism is an imaginative theory and cannot be implemented as it is. Today, socialism is not adopted in the same way, as it was advocated by Karl Marx and other socialists. The original form of socialism is neither preached nor practiced.

Negatively Influences Growth Of Economy

Socialism is actually economically inefficient, as it puts off entrepreneurs from generating wealth, because they usually have to pay higher taxes.

Improper Implementation

In socialist countries today, there are a handful of bureaucrats who control and use the power of the state. They redistribute and regulate wealth and decide on taxation for the people. Thus, in reality, people do not have control over wealth. This limits people’s political freedom and reverses the overall concept.

Poverty & Social Evils Are Not Eliminated

Socialism might redistribute some of the wealth of the richest members of the society to the poor, but this move does not eliminate poverty as a whole. The overall growth of economy suffers considerably. If there is not enough wealth, then distribution can be hampered.

Boosts Incompetence

As socialism provides the poorest with higher levels of income via social security payments, it deters them from working hard, if at all. It also creates a negative feeling in the minds of hard working fellows, as they gain no extra incentives for working hard. Adding to their woes, lazy people get paid equally as they do. This negatively impacts productivity and thus economic growth.

No Real Increase In Standard Of Living

Instead of improving the living standards for all, socialism actually lowers the income of the richest to reduce the divide and make them fall close to the income levels of the poorest.