The
status of women in India has been subject to many great changes over a Past few
millenia. India has most ancient pedigreed system of law, about 6000 years old,
marked with fluctuating fortune in the status of women. The Indian women are
completely devoted to their families. They are preached in the names of Goddess
Durga, Goddess Saraswati, Parvati and Kali. The evolution of the status of
women in India has been a continuous process of ups and downs throughout history.
Women existed during the pre Aryan ,Dravidian time and are mentioned in the
sanskrit literatures. Women represented in the Hindu and Buddhist art and
culture. Devi traditions are found in main Hinduism and Tantric Hinduism.
Bhakti saints and courtesans are found in north and south India.
It
was during the Medieval period .which is also called as 'Dark Age' there was a
decline in the status of women. They were not allowed to go out, and move with
others. They were asked to sit at home caress their children .Early marriage of
a girl child, before getting acquainted with her own parents she was given in
marriage to an outsider at 12 or13 where after marriage she went to in laws.
Thus a girl child was betrothed..Child Marriage,Sati ,Jauhar,Child re-marriage,
restriction of education to a girl child and Devadasi system prevailed.
Placing
women at the centre and then change in their position over time and across
pace,religion,regime and caste provides the much needed historical context for
a proper understanding of the gender disparitiies in areas like education, employment
and legal entitlements to property apart from social and cultural inequality. Anxiety
among widows to know about property rights prevailed .The practice of Sati
existed and it was believed that those who perform Sati twill reach abode
'heaven' along with their husband. Such families are respected in society and
they have high moral values .
It
is only after Independence women came forward in all the fields and we have
seen notable women in the field of education,Art and Culture. A historical
perspective to the complexities India continues to face from time to time since
Independence.
But
the status of women in modern India is a sort of paradox. If on the one hand
she finds success and the path to success clear ,on the other hand she is
suffering , sufferings afflicted by her in laws and family members. Indian
women are not treated as equal they are still prejudiced. Nowadays women leave
home and now go to work means they are in battlefield with their talent.
Women in Ancient India
Indus valley civilization-
In
Indus valley civilization condition of women was pretty good. They were
entitled equal honour along with the man in the society. The worship of mother goddess demonstrates
that they were venerated in the form of mother.
Rig Vedic period-
During
Rig Vedic period woman had an excellent position and they enjoyed full freedom
and equality with men. The position of wife was an honoured one in the
household and women enjoyed a position superior to that of a man in the matter
of performance of religious ceremonies.
In
the matter of education both boys and girls were having equal opportunities.
After observing Upanayana Samskar, girls were allowed to spend their life in
‘Gurukul’. In intellectual and spiritual life they occupied a position as man.
Education of maiden was considered as a important qualification for marriage.
The
frequent reference to unmarried girls speaks in favor of a custom of girls
marrying long after they had reached puberty. There seems to have been
considerable freedom on the part of young persons in the selection of their
life partners as they generally married at a mature age. Approval of the parent
or the brother was not essential, the boy and the girl made up their minds and
then informed the elders though their participation in the marriage ceremony
was essential i.e. the blessings of the elders were sought. There was a reference in Vedic literature that
in Kshatriya society brides had exclusive right of selecting their own
consorts, which was known as ‘Svaymvara’.
In
Rig Vedic society dowry system was unknown but it was connected with the
concept of marriage as a dan or gift. In
rich and royal families some gifts were given to son-in-law at the time of
marriage. Monogamy was prevalent and practiced in general communities, at the
same time Bigamy was also in practice but it was limited to the aristocratic
classes.
The
wife was respected in her new house and wielded authority over her husband’s
family. The wife participated in the sacrificial offerings of her husband.
Abundance of sons was prayed for so, naturally so in a patriarchal society
since the son performed the last rites and continued the line.
Remarriage
of widows was permitted under certain conditions. Female morality maintained a
high standard although but the same degree of fidelity was not expected from
the husband.
In this
age there was no practice of divorce but the custom of widow’s remarriage was
in practice. The Rig-Veda states that
the widow had the right to marry again with her husband’s brother. Whereas Baudhayan and Vasistha mentioned that
it is not necessary for a widow to marry her husband’s brother only but she can
marry any other person also.
Rig-Veda
recognized right of inheritance of an unmarried daughter from the property of
her father but married daughter was exempted. There were no specific mention
regarding right of inheritance of a married daughter or widow.
Uttar Vedic Period - Freedom of
marriage continued and remarriage of widows continued to be allowed. Dowries
continued to be given but not in the sense that we understand today. The
marriage ceremony was the same as in the previous period. As in the previous
period the picture of an ideal family life continued.
Gradually
religious ceremonies increasingly were conducted by the priests resulting in
loosing her preeminent position in the household. This was the period during
which the importance of rituals increased and so did the importance of the
Brahmans.
Desire
for sons continued, sati was not prevalent. The position of women was not as
high as it was in the Rig Vedic period. Female workers were involved in dying,
embroidery and basket making.
The Age of the Upanishads - The anuloma
system of marriage ie between the male of a higher caste and female of a lower
caste prevailed during this period. The rules of Panini regarding Abhi-vadana (
salutation as a mark of respect to elderly persons in the house ) show that the
presence of wives of the lower caste in a house and their association with
ladies of a higher caste brought down the general level of womanly culture and
led to a deterioration in their status.
Age of Sutras and Epics-
The Grihya-sutras give detailed rules
regarding the proper seasons for marriage, qualifications of bride and
bridegroom. The bride is at a mature age, over 15 or 16. The elaborate rites
indicate that marriage was a holy bond and not a contract.
The
women held an honored position in the household. She was allowed to sing, dance
and enjoy life. Sati was not generally prevalent. Widow Remarriage was allowed
under certain circumstances. On the whole the Dharma-sutras take a more lenient
attitude than the Smritis of a later age. The Apastamba imposes several
penalties on a husband who unjustly forsakes his wife. On the other hand, a
wife who forsakes her husband has to only perform penance. In case a grown up
girl was not married at a proper time by her father, she could choose her
husband after three years of waiting.
The
most pleasing feature of this period is the presence of women teachers, many of
whom possessed highest spiritual knowledge. The famous dialogue between
Yajnavalkya and his wife Maitreyi and Gargi Vachaknavi show how enlightened the
women of that age were. According to the Sarvanukramanika, there were as many
as 20 women among the authors of the Rig Veda. These stories stand in contrast
to the later age when the study of Vedic literature was forbidden to women
under the most severe penalty.
As
in all patriarchal societies during that age the birth of a daughter was
unwelcome. The son lived with his parents, earned money for the family,
protected the family from enemies and perpetuated the name of the family.
The
Ramayan along with the Mahabarat and the puranas constitute the epic literature
in India. The position of women gradually deteriorated not only in the society
but also in the family. The discontinuance of Upanayana, the neglect of
education and lowering of the marriage age produced disastrous consequence upon
the position and status of woman. During this period a woman was considered to
be a living commodity which could be kept on bet and could be sold or
purchased.
But
we also get quite contrary views from Ramayan and Mahabarata. Bhisma says that during this period women
were respected. Sita is regarded as one
of the five ideal and revered women in India, the other four being Ahalya,
Draupati, Tara and Mondodari. There are references in Mahabarata which reflects
that women used to guide men on religious and social questions. Mahabarata says
the “Goddess of prosperity” resides within the woman who is given to truth and
sincerity kind who pays due report to the gods and the Brahmana. It was expected of a good woman to cooperate
with her husband in religious pursuits. Marriage was a religious
sacrament. A woman was considered unfit
for independence at any time as she required protection throughout her life.
In The Age 600 BC to 320 AD-
Marriage
between the same caste was preferred although inter caste marriages were
prevalent. Of the eight forms of
marriage prescribed by the Dharma-sutras, the Arhsa form of marriage was most
popular. The bridegroom was selected by the girl’s father. According to
Nearchus the Indians “marry without giving or taking dowries but the girls, as
soon as they are marriageable, are brought forward by their fathers and exposed
in public, to be selected by a person who excels in some form of physical
exercise”. This indicates a modified form of Svayamvara. While girls continued
to be married around 16, there was a tendency to marry them before they
attained puberty. It was probably due to the anxiety to maintain their body
purity. Lowering of the marriage age affected their education and culture
adversely. After Extreme emphasis was now laid on the physical chastity of
women which discouraged widow remarriage, divorce and encouragement of sati.
There
is also evidence that women were active in such public economic activities as
wage-labor in state-owned textile factories as well as serving as temple
dancers, courtesans, and court attendants. There is little information on lower
class women other than some comments on laboring women and the need to give
works as spinners to such disadvantaged women as widows and "defective
girls."
During
the earlier part of this period, there were highly educated women holding an
honorable position in society and household. There were lifelong students of
sacred texts or those who pursued their study till marriage. Women also recd
training in arts, music, painting and for some military training also. Buddhist
and Jain nuns renounced the world for the sake of spiritual salvation. Jain
texts refer to Jayanti who carried on discussions with Mahavira himself and later
on became a nun.
Inspite
of the progress, there were growing disabilities. Earlier the girls went through the Upanayana
ceremony but now it was only a formality. Manu laid down that marriage was
equal to Upanayana while Yajnavalkya took the step of prohibiting Upanayana
ceremony for girls. The wife who performed Vedic sacrifices was denied the
right to do so. Narada is however, more considerate towards women. Greek
writers have stated that sati existed, was in vogue in Punjab, possibly
confined to the warrior class only.
Women
courtesans were not looked down by religious leaders or kings. Some of them
were highly accomplished and in the point of culture, standing resembled the
Hetairai of Athens. A famous courtesan Amrapali who lived during the reign of
Bimbisara (300 to 273 BC) was a beauty whom Buddha visited.
Chandragupta
Maurya, the founder of the dynasty, was reputedly assisted by Kautilya, a
brahman prime minister, who composed the Arthasastra, a handbook of state craft
which is often compared to Machiavelli's The Prince. This compendium documents
that women had property rights to the stridhan, which was the gift made to a
woman at the time of her marriage by her parents and afterwards augmented by
her husband. Stridhan was usually in the form of jewelry, which among many
cultural groups was a convenient way of carrying surplus wealth, but could
include certain rights to immovable property. There were eight forms of
marriage. They ranged from the most prestigious, involving the gift of a virgin
daughter (kanyadan) by her father to another male, to marriage by abduction
while the woman is incapacitated through sleep or intoxication. Marriage was
both a secular and sacred institution. Widows could remarry, although, when
they did so, they lost rights to any property inherited from their deceased
husbands. There is also evidence that women were active in such public economic
activities as wage-labor in state-owned textile factories as well as serving as
temple dancers, courtesans, and court attendants. There is little information
on lower class women other than some comments on laboring women and the need to
give works as spinners to such disadvantaged women as widows and
"defective girls."
There
is also a Tamil epic, Shilappadikaram or "The Lay of Anklet," from
about A.D. 450 in which the primary heroine is Kannaki, a devoted wife. She
suffers the loss of her husband to beautiful courtesan but still offers to sell
a gem-encrusted ankle bracelet to help him repay his depts. When he is beheaded
because of an unjust accusation, Kannaki, in her wrath, destroys by fire the
city where her husband met his fate. Eventually the goddess Parvati pacifies
Kannake, who is reunited with her husband in heaven. The husband suffers
because of bad actions in an earlier life, but Kannaki demonstrates the power
of chastity and righteousness.
In The Age 320 to 750 A D
The
Gupta Empire is seen as the classical age of Indian culture because of its
literary and artistic accomplishments. Some information on roles for elite
women comes from the Kama Sutra, a manual about the many ways to acquire
pleasure, a legitimate goal for Hindu men in the householder, or second stage,
of their lives. Women were expected to be educated, to give and to receive
sexual pleasure, and to be faithful wives. Courtesans were trained in poetry
and music as well as the skills of sexual pleasure and were esteemed members of
society. Courtesans were the one category of women who were likely to be
educated and sometimes were known to have spoken Sanskrit. A prime example of a
noble-hearted courtesan was Vasantesena, the heroine of the "The Little
Clay Cart," a popular play in Sanskrit ascribed to Sudraka (ca. A.D. 400).
Vasantasena is an exception to the stereotype of greedy courtesans in her willingness
to sacrifice her jewelry for her lover. She, however, achieves respectability
only by becoming his wife. The other major dramatic female heroine of classical
Indian literature is Shakuntala, who is now represented as a docile young woman
who yearn for her distant lover in Kalidasa's "Shakuntala and the Ring of
Remembrance."
There
was a growing tendency to lower the marriageable age of girls with girls being
married before or after puberty. Marriage within the same caste was preferred
but prohibited within certain degrees of relationship. Girls of high families had adequate
opportunities for acquiring proficiency in higher learning. In Vatsyayana’s
Kamasutra, instances of princess are mentioned whose intellect was sharpened by
knowledge of the Sasatras. The literary evidence of the Gupta age proves that
girls of high families as also those living in hermitages read works on ancient
history & legend. Girls living in royal courts were trained in singing
& dancing too. Vatsyanana draws a picture of a good wife which may be taken
as a reflection of the real life during that period.
In
the Gupta period lived the chaste and austere life prescribed by the Smritis.
Sati was extolled by some but strongly disapproved by others. In the absence of
any reference by the Chinese travelers it would be correct to believe that the
custom was not widely prevalent during this period. Probably due to the foreign
invasions and its consequences for women, the custom of sati, though confined
to the warrior class earlier began to gain widespread acceptance, be perceived
as a great sacrifice. The tendency to regard women as weaker and not of strong
moral fibre got stronger during this period although women as mother, sister
continued to be highly respected.
Remarriage
of widows though coming into disfavor was not forbidden. The only direction in
which the position of women improved was in the sphere of proprietary rights.
As society began to discourage widow remarriages, there began to arise a class
of childless widows who needed money to maintain themselves. Due to a lowering
of the age of marriage, girls were not educated as before. This reduced the
position and status of women. Brides being too young had no say in choosing
their partners. Love marriages were a thing of the past. During this period,
marriage became an irrevocable union, but it was one sided in favor of the
husband. Since women were not as educated as before they did not know what
their rights were. Among the most striking changes may be the increased
recognition in Katyayana of the women’s right to property and a remarkable rule
in Atri that allowed women molested by robbers to regain her social status.
Some women enjoyed political power e.g. Prabhavati-gupta, daughter of
Chandra-gupta II who ruled the Vakataka kingdom on behalf of her son, in the
4th century a.d. Available literature
seem to indicate that married women in higher families did not usually appear
in public without veils. The silence of Hiuen Tsang indicates that women in
general did not observe the Purdah or remain in seclusion.
Women in Early medieval Period
Like
the earlier period, women were generally considered mentally inferior. Their
duty was to obey their husband blindly. A writer illustrates the wife’s duty of
personal services towards her husband by saying that she shall shampoo his feet
and render him such other service as befit a servant. But he adds the condition
that the husband follows the righteous path and is free from hatred as well as
jealousy towards the wife. The Matsya Purana authorizes the husband to beat his
erring wife (though not on the head or the breasts) with a rope or a split
bamboo. Women continued to be denied the right to study the Vedas. Furthermore,
the marriageable age for girls was lowered, thereby destroying their opportunities
for higher education. The omission of all reference to women teachers in the
dictionaries written during the period show the poor state of higher education
among women. However, from some of the dramatic works of the period, we find
the court ladies and even the queen’s maids-in-wating capable of composing
excellent Sanskrit and prakrit verses. Various stories point to the skill of
princesses in the fine arts, specially in painting and music. Daughters of high
officials, courtesans and concubines were also supposed to be highly skilled in
the various arts, including poetry.
As
for marriage, the Smriti writers say that girls were to be given away by their
parents, between the ages of six and eight or between their eighth year and
attending puberity. Medhatithi made inter-caste marriages exceptional. Marriage
with the daughter of a maternal uncle is condemned. Marriage by mutual love is
condemned by Medhatithi and he said that one should marry a girl who is much
younger than himself, she must get married between the age of eight and
achieving puberty.
If a
girl’s guardian cannot find her a match before she becomes of marriageable age,
then she can choose her partner after staying in her father’s house for three
years after attaining puberty. While love marriages were known they were
solemnized after approval of the girl’s guardians. Sometimes, girls with the
approval of their parents opted for a Svayamvara ceremony. Remarriage was
allowed under certain condition when the
husband had deserted (i.e., was not heard of ) or died , or adopted the life of a recluse, or was impotent or had
become an out caste.
In
general, women were distrusted. They were to kept in seclusion and their life
was reigned the male relation – father, brother, husband, son. However, within
the home they were honoured. If a husband abandoned even a guilty-wife, she was
to be given maintenance. With the growth of property rights in land, the
property right of women also increased. In order to preserve the property of a
family, women were given the right to inherit the property of their male
relations. With some reservation, a widow was
entitled to the entire estate of her husband if he died sonless.
Daughters also had the right to succeed to the properties of a widow. Thus, the
growth of feudal society strengthened the concept of private property.
The
practice of sati was made obligatory by some writers, but condemned by others.
According to an Arab writer, sulaiman, wives of king sometimes burnt themselves
on the funeral pyre of their husbands, but it was for them to exercise their
option in the matter. It appears that with the growth of the practice of large
numbers of women being maintained by the feudal chiefs, and with the resultant
disputes about property, there was a tendency for the rite of sati spread.
Purdah
was not prevalent during this period. According to Abu Zaid, most Indian
Princess while holding court allowed their women to be seen unveiled by the men
present, whether native or foreigners.
The general level of their culture is high.
Silamahadevi, wife of the Rashtrakuta emperor, Dhruva, probably ruled jointly
with her husband. Several Queens of the Kara dynasty ruled in Ores. Sugandha
and Didda of Kashmir administered extensive kingdoms. There were learned women
as well as administrators. Sarasvati, wife of Mandanamisra, who acted as an
arbitrator in her husband’s disputations with Sankaracharya, was a learned
scholar herself”.
Women in medieval India
Medieval
Indian history spreads over 500 years. It is predominantly the history of
Muslim rulers. Muslim appeared in India as a warrior class. Their rule in India
is divided into two Eras; The Era of Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Era. The
only women who had ever occupied the thrown of Delhi was Razia Sultan. She was
not only a wise ruler but also a women of Dauntless courage. She set the role
of model for politically empowered women in India. In Mughal Era India saw the
rise of some eminent muslim women. Qutluq Nigar Khanm Babar’s mother gave wise
counsel to her son Babar, during his arduous campaign for the recovery of his
father’s heritage.Gulbadan Begum was a
women of exceptional poetic talent who wrote Humayun-namah. Nur Jahan
and Jahan Ara took an active part in the state affairas. Nurjahan was the greatest muslim queen of
India. She was very embodiment of beauty and military valour. Mumtaj Mahal a
princess of a rare beauty combined with superb intellectual talents and
aesthetic tastes. India has also produced heroic women.
Chandbibi, who appeared on the ramparts of the fort of Ahmednagar
dressed in male attire and put heart in the defenders of that town against the
powers of Akbar himself; Tara Bai, the Maharata heroine who was the life and
soul of Maharata resistance during the last determined onslaught of Aurangazeb;
Mangammal, whose benign rule is still a green memory in the South, and Ahalya
Bai Holkar, to whose administrative genius Sir John Malcolm has paid
amagnificent tribute. The Moghul princesses of course played a notable part in
the court life of Agra and Delhi. Jehanara, the partisan of Dara Shikoh,
Roshanara, the partisan of Aurangazeb, Zebunnissa, the daughter of Aurangazeb,
whose poems (under the pen name of Makhfi) have come down to us and others
represented the culture of the court. Jija
Bai, the mother of Shivaji, is more typical of Indian womanhood than the
bejewelled princesses who wrote poetry, played within the walls of their
palaces or administered States. She was a true type of Indian womanhood, a
devoted mother, strong-willed and autocratic at home but wholly subordinating
hereself to the interests of her son.
During
the medieval period the social life of women underwent great changes.
Dependence of women on their husbands or other male relatives was a prominent feature
of this period. Devoid of avenues of any education, having lost the access to Streedhana
or dowry, they virtually became the exploited class with disastrous results for
themselves and the nation. Indian women were politically, socially and
economically inactive except for those engaged in farming and weaving.
Political subordination includes the exclusion of women from all important decision-
making processes. With the advent of Muslims in India, the social movement of
Indian women was restricted. They were prohibited to attend public functions
and were not free to participate as men's equals in religious functions like
yajnas, obviously indicating a degradation of her role as she was getting
wrapped in isolation. Another social evil that existed in society during this
period was child marriage. These pre-pubescent marriages adversely affected the
health of the girls. These child brides were denied all intellectual, physical
and spiritual development. It virtually punctured the fragile psyche of Indian
girl child. Her self-image was torn into shreds by the patriarchal family which
denied her basic freedom. Indian womanhood was mercilessly locked in the echo
chamber. Similarly most of the women made themselves believe that the ideal
place for them was the home. Thus they were persuaded by circumstances to
accept their inferiority and secondary position. Men being providers, women
became dependent on them economically, for their subsistence except for the
labour classes, where both men and women participated in subsistence farming
and other occupations.
Many
social evils like female infanticide, sati, child marriages, Purdah system or zenana,
the seclusion of women developed during the middle ages, due to the political instability
of northem India, especially due to various invasions. Muslims who came to India
were mainly warriors and they did not give much importance to Hindu ideals like
chastity and pativrata dharma So the seclusion of women was encouraged mainly
by the Rajputs and the other upper castes like Brahmins. Polygamy was the first
reason which contributed to the subordination of women. Muslim rulers in India
had large harems. Thus women came to be regarded as instruments of sensual
satisfaction. Even among the Hindus there was no limit set to the number of wives
a man could take. Marriage in Islam is a contract. But a Muslim man can have as
many as four wives. Thus even religion encouraged the abject subordination of
women for the reasons best known to it. Islam also made husband the head of the
family and insisted that a wife should obey all his commands and should serve
him with utmost loyalty, whether he was worthy of it or not.
Another
social evil that existed in medieval India was female infanticide. This particular
system was prevalent among Rajputs and other high castes. Even among the Muslims
this custom existed. The evil mainly orginated from the belief that only the birth
of a son could make salvation possible for parents. Only a son had the
privilege of performing Samskaras. And lastly the son began to be considered as
the maintainer of the race. So in most of the noble families the female child
was killed either by poisoning or by burying her alive. Some of them were
drowned to death.
Purdah
gained popularity with the advent of the Muslims. The purdah system existed
among Kshatriyas in the period of Dharma Sastras. But the Hindu women veiled
only their face or sometimes only covered their heads with sarees or "dupattas."
But for Muslims it meant complete veiling. Purdah actually is a Persian word
which means curtain. According to Patricia Jeffrey "Purdah is a part and
parcel of stratification in India It becomes the mental foot binding, the frogs
in a well syndrome, the submissiveness of the young bride and the inability of
adult women to cope with the world outside."
Dowry
system was a common phenomenon. It actually meant "Stridhana" which included
gifts, ornaments, property, and cash presented to her by her father or her
relatives. But in the medieval period the term acquired special significance.
It meant money or "Dakshina" which was actually presented to the
bride groom along with the bride. In Vedic times it ensured some sort of
security for her. But during the middle ages she was not free to use it as it
was owned by her husband and his kith and kin. During the Middle Ages the term
"Stridhana" acquired huge dimensions. The Hindus and Muslims favoured
this custom of dowry. It could be paid in cash or kind along with the bride.
During the Vedic ages it was given with the intention of providing security for
women when a crisis occurs. She was free to make use of this "Dhana."
But the Middle Ages witnessed a sudden transformation. The Stridhana received
by the groom belonged completely to the in-laws. The bride did not have free
access to this wealth, which rightfully belonged to her. Dowry system existed
even among the Muslims, especially among the Shias. As years rolled by dowry
became an integral part of the marriage ceremony. This in a way contributed to
female infanticide, as it became a heavy burden on the poor. The birth of girls
became a nightmare to the majority of the population. Another negative effect
of the dowry system was that the Indian woman lost her importance as a worthy
human being. She began to be regarded as movable and removable property by her
husband. Created by the so-called law-givers and upholders of religion in the
medieval age it literally induced physical as well as intellectual damage on
women in medieval India. It took away her fledge ling morale which was as
expectedly delicate. Above all it resulted in the emotional break-downs and the
traumas of a serious kind. Thus her self-concept received another lethal lash
at the hands of the dark forces that ruled the roost.
The
condition of the Hindu widows became more miserable during the medieval period.
Rigidity of caste system denied them the right to freedom and social mobility. Inhuman
treatment was offered to the widow. She was forced to lead a life away from worldly
pleasures. A widow was also secluded from society as well as family. Another pre-requisite
for a widow was shaving the head. She was thus humiliated mercilessly by contemporary
society. The condition of the Muslim widow was slightly better owing to the
fact that she could marry after a certain lapse of time following her husband's
death.
Jauhar
refers to the practice of voluntary immolation by wives and daughters of
defeated warriors, in order to avoid capture and consequent molestation by the
enemy. The practice was followed by the wives of defeated Rajput rulers, who
are known to place a high premium on honour. The feudal society of the time
encouraged "Sati" which meant self-immolation of the widow. By
burning herself on the pyre of her husband, she proves her loyalty. Even the
child widows were not spared from this gruesome ritual. According to Saroj
Gulati "because of the continuous wars, there were chances of too many
widows young and old, and a big question was how to accommodate them without
bringing stigma to the family or creating problems for society." And Sati was considered as the best course even
though it was the worst crime perpetrated on Indian women from many angles of reason
or humanity.
Prostitution
became a recognised institution. The Devadasi system which was prevalent among
the Hindus and the courtesans who adorned the court of Muslim rulers, degraded
the status of women in society. Under the Devadasi system women were the brides
of gods. But they were supposed to entertain kings, priests and even members of
the upper classes. The fact that they were exploited by the existing
male-dominated society is clearly revealed in the testimony of Alberuni:
"the kings make them an attraction for their cities, a bait of pleasure
for their subjects, for no other but financial reasons."
Women in the Bhakti
Movement
Bhakti
movements which flourished during the medieval age gave rise to a new class of
man and women who cared little for gender bias. The liberal current, which to
some extent widened the horizon of women, was the Bhakti movements, the medieval
saints’ movements.Female poet-saints also played a significant role in the
bhakti movement at large. Nonetheless, many of these women had to struggle for
acceptance within the largely male dominated movement. Only through
demonstrations of their utter devotion to the Divine, their outstanding poetry,
and stubborn insistence of their spiritual equality with their contemporaries
were these women reluctantly acknowledged and accepted within their ranks.
Their struggle attests to the strength of patriarchal values within both
society and within religious and social movements attempting to pave the way
for more egalitarian access to the Divine.
The
imagery of bhakti poetry is grounded in the everyday, familiar language of
ordinary people. Women bhaktas wrote of the obstacles of home, family tensions,
the absent husband, meaningless household chores, and restrictions of married
life, including their status as married women. In many cases, they rejected
traditional women’s roles and societal norms by leaving husbands and homes
altogether, choosing to become wandering bhaktas; in some instances they formed
communities with other poet-saints. Their new focus was utter devotion and
worship of their Divine Husbands.
However,
while male bhaktas could engage in this role-playing on a temporary basis,
returning at will to their privileged social status as males, women bhaktas
faced overwhelming challenges through their rejection of societal norms and
values, without having the ability to revert back to their normative roles as
wives, mothers and in some cases, the privileges of their original high-caste
status.
While
it is tempting to see women’s participation within the bhakti movement as a
revolt against the patriarchal norms of the time, there is little evidence to support
this perspective. Injustices and the patriarchal order itself were not a major
focus of these poet-saints. Women bhaktas were simply individuals attempting to
lead lives of devotion. Staying largely within the patriarchal ideology that
upheld the chaste and dutiful wife as ideal, these women transferred the object
of their devotion and their duties as the “lovers” or “wives” to their Divine
Lover or Husband. Nonetheless, that their poetry became an integral aspect of
the bhakti movement at large is highly significant and inspirational for many
who look to these extraordinary women as ideal examples of lives intoxicated by
love for the Divine.
Further,
it would appear that with the movement’s northward advancement (15th through
17th centuries), its radical edge as it pertained to women’s inclusion was
tempered. Greater numbers of women took part in the movement’s earlier
development (6th to 13th centuries); it is largely male bhaktas and saints that
are today perceived as the spokespersons for the movement in its later
manifestations. The poetry of women bhaktas from this latter time period is
generally not indicative of a rejection of societal norms in terms of leaving
family and homes in pursuit of divine love. Instead, some of the later
poet-saints stayed within the confines of the household while expounding on
their souls’ journeys, their eternal love for the Divine, as well as their
never-ending search for truth.
Female Bhaktas
The
poets outlined below represent a panorama of female poet-saints within the
Bhakti movement. Some were extraordinarily radical in their rejection of social
norms and values, leaving husbands, families, and society behind in order to
extol their love for God. Others attempted to fit into more traditional roles
in society by maintaining their responsibilities as wives and mothers. All
wrote exquisite poetry that has been passed on through bards and singers
throughout India.
Akkamahadevi,
also known as Akka or Mahadevi was a bhakta from the southern region of
Karnataka and a devotee of Shiva in the 12th century CE. Legends tell of her
wandering naked in search of her Divine Lover; her poetry, or vacanas tell of
her frustration with societal norms and roles that restricted her. They also
bear witness to her intense, all-encompassing love for Shiva, whom she
addresses as Chennamallikarjuna. Through Shiva and Shiva alone is her love
fulfilled; through separation from her “lord white as jasmine” is her heart
broken.
Janabai
was born around the 13th century in Maharashtra in a low-caste sudra family. As
a young girl she was sent to work in the upper-caste family of Namdev, one of
the most revered of the bhakti poet saints. While within this household, she
continued to serve Namdev, both as a servant and as his devotee. Janabai wrote over
three hundred poems focusing on domestic chores and the restrictions facing her
as a low-caste woman.
Mirabai,
or Mira is said to have been born into a ruling Rajput family. Mirabai’s poetry
tells of her vision of Lord Krishna when she was a child; from that point on
Mira vowed that she would forever be his bride. Despite her wishes, she was
married into another princely family at a young age. Yet the numerous legends
surrounding Mira tell of an undying devotion toward Krishna, her true husband.
Central to these accounts are Mirabai’s struggles within the family she had
been married into, including unsuccessful attempts made by her jealous husband
to kill her. Others focus on her sisters-in-law’s efforts to obstruct Mirabai
in her desires to join the company of wandering saints, actions deemed utterly
improper for a woman of her high-caste status. Eventually, Mirabai left her
husband and family in pilgrimage to various places associated with “her Dark
Lord,” including Brindavan, Krishna’s holy city. There she was initially
rejected because she was a woman. Yet Mirabai’s reputation of devotion, piety,
and intellectual astuteness eventually led to her inclusion within the
community of the saints of Brindavan.
Bahinabai
or Bahina was a poet-saint from 17th century Maharashtra, writing in the form
of abangas, women’s songs that accompanied their labors, especially in the
fields. Her writings are particularly autobiographical, recounting her
childhood, puberty and married life. Despite having obvious conflicts with her
husband due to her overarching and ecstatic love for her Divine Lover in the
form of Lord Vithoba, another name for Krishna, she took her role as wife and
responsibilities to her earthly husband seriously. Her husband was also
critical of her allegiance to the bhakti poet-saint Tukaram. Nonetheless, her
poetry reflects an attitude of duty and respectful empathy toward both her
marriage and her spouse. This becomes clear through her writings on the
responsibilities of women toward their husbands.
Women in Modern India
Modern
India refers to the period form 1700 A.D. to 1947 A.D. In the back ground of
the intellectual upheaval of the 18th and 19th centaury
there witnessed a world wide demand for establishing of independent and
egalitarian nationalist societies which invariably emphasized the equality of
women with men. Women in modern India have largely been influenced by the
programs of reform and upliftment which brought about a radical change in their
position. With the various reform movements and a gradual change in the
perception of women in society, there was seen a radical transformation in the
position of women in modern India. Before the coming of the British in India
the life of women was rather oppressive, and they were subject to a constant
process of subjugation and social oppression. The women’s youth was spent in
the preparation of marriage and her entire life was one dependent on the male
members of her family. Though a few women became educated, attained fame and
commanded armies, most were denied men’s opportunities to acquire knowledge,
property and social status.
Status of women in India during the British
period-
If a
person who died a hundred years ago came to life to day, the first and most
important change that would strike him is the revolution in the position of
women. The study of the English literature by a section of the Indians which
helped them to assimilate the western democratic and liberal ideology, an
ideology subsequently utilized by them to start social and religious reform
movements in India. During the British rule, a number of changes were made in
the economic and social structures of Indian society, and some substantial
progress was achieved in elimination of inequalities between men and women, in
education, employment, social rights etc. Prior to this period, the status of
women was in an unpromising state.
The
idea of imparting education to women emerged in the British period. After the
Bhakti Movement, the Christian Missionaries took interest in the education of
the girls. The Hunter Commission too emphasized on the need for female
education in 1882. The Calcutta, Bombay and Madras institutions did not permit
the admission of girls till 1875. It was only after 1882 that girls were
allowed to go for higher education. Since then, there has been a continuous
progress in the extend of education among females. Though the number of girls
studying at various levels was low, yet there has been a marked increase in the
number of female students at every level from 1941 onwards.
At
the end of the Nineteenth Century women in India suffered from disabilities
like, child-marriage, practice of polygamy, sale of girls for marriage
purposes, severe restrictions on widows, non-access to education and
restricting oneself to domestic and child-bearing functions. The Indian
National Conference started in 1885 by Justice Ranade contained these
disabilities.
Raja
Ram Mohun Roy, who played an important role in getting the Sati system
abolished raised voices against the child-marriage and fought for the right of
inheritance for women. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar launched a movement for the
right of widows to re-marry and also pleaded for educating women. Maharaja S.
Rao, ruler of Baroda State worked for prevention of child-marriages, Polygamy
and getting the rights of education to women, and the right of re-marriage to
widows. Swami Vivekananda, Annie Besant, and Mahatma Gandhi, Swami Dayanand
Saraswati also took interest in the social and political rights of women.
Gandhiji was of the opinion that, women should labour under no legal
disability. He was in favour of treating daughters and sons on an equal
footing.
Some
women organizations like the Banga Mahila Samaj, and the Ladies Theosophical
Society functioned at local levels to promote modern ideas for women. These
organizations took up issues like women's education, abolition of social evils
like purdah and Child marriage, Hindu law reform, moral and material progress
of women, equality of rights and opportunities, etc. It can be said that, the
Indian women's movement worked for two goals.
(i)
Uplift of women.
(ii)
Equal rights for both men and women.
Social Laws Concerning Women-
The
condition of women, by the time the British established their rule, was not
encouraging. Several evil practices such as the practice of Sati, the Purdah
system, child marriage, female infanticide, bride price and polygamy had made
their life quite miserable. The place of women had come to be confined to the
four walls of her home. The doors of education had been shut for them. From
economic point of view also her status was miserable. There was no social and
economic equality between a man and woman. A Hindu woman was not entitled to
inherit any property. Thus, by and large, she was completely dependent on men.
During
the 19th and 20th centuries some laws were enacted with the sincere efforts of
social reformers, humanists and some British administrators to improve the
condition of women in Indian society. The first effort in this direction was
the enactment of law against the practice of Sati during the administration of
Lord William Bentinck.
Female Infanticide
Female
infanticide was another inhuman practice afflicting the 19th century Indian
society. It was particularly in vogue in Rajputana, Punjab and the North
Western Provinces. Colonel Todd, Johnson Duncan, Malcolm and other British
administrators have discussed about this evil custom in detail. Factors such as
family pride, the fear of not finding a suitable match for the girl child and
the hesitation to bend before the prospective in-laws were some of the major
reasons responsible for this practice.
Therefore,
immediately after birth, the female infants were being killed either by feeding
them with opium or by strangulating or by purposely neglecting them. Some laws
were enacted against this practice in 1795, 1802 and 1804 and then in 1870.
However, the practice could not be completely eradicated only through legal
measures. Gradually, this evil practice came to be done away through education
and public opinion.
Widow Remarriage-
There
are many historical evidences to suggest that widow remarriage enjoyed social
sanction during ancient period in India. In course of time the practice ceased
to prevail increasing the number of widows to lakhs during the 19th century.
Therefore, it became incumbent on the part of the social reformers to make
sincere efforts to popularize widow remarriage by writing in newspapers and
contemporary journals.
Prominent
among these reformers were Raja Rammohan Roy and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar. They
carried out large scale campaigns in this regard mainly through books,
pamphlets and petitions with scores of signatures. In July 1856, J.P. Grant, a
member of the Governor-General’s Council finally tabled a bill in support of
the widow remarriage, which was passed on 13 July 1856 and came to be called
the Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.
Child Marriage-
The
practice of child marriage was another social stigma for the women. In November
1870, the Indian Reforms Association was started with the efforts of Keshav
Chandra Sen. A journal called Mahapap Bal Vivah (Child marriage: The Cardinal
Sin) was also launched with the efforts of B.M. Malabari to fight against child
marriage. In 1846, the minimum marriageable age for a girl was only 10 years.
In 1891,
through the enactment of the Age of Consent Act, this was raised to 12 years.
In 1930, through the Sharda Act, the minimum age was raised to 14 years. After
independence, the limit was raised to 18 years in 1978.
Purdah System-
Similarly,
voices were raised against the practice of Purdah during the 19th and 20th
century. The condition of women among the peasantry was relatively better in
this respect. Purdah was not so much prevalent in Southern India.
Through
the large scale participation of women in the national freedom movement, the
system disappeared without any specific legislative measure taken against it.
Struggle against the Caste System and the related Legislation Next to the issue
of women emancipation, the caste system became the second most important issue
of social reforms. In fact,the system of caste had become the bane of Indian
society.
Abolish of Sati system in India-
The
sati system was one of the worst systems that were practiced before the
independence revolt in 1857. It is the system in which the girl used to die
with her husband in case the husband dies before the girl. It was a social funeral practice among some
Indian communities in which a recently widowed woman would immolate herself on
her husband’s funeral pyre. From about 1812, the Bengali reformer Raja Rammohan
Roy started his own campaign against the practice. He was motivated by the
experience of seeing his own sister-in-law being forced to commit sati. Among
his actions, he visited Calcutta cremation grounds to persuade widows against
immolation, formed watch groups to do the same, and wrote and disseminated
articles to show that it was not required by scripture.
On 4
December 1829, the practice was formally banned in the Bengal Presidency lands,
by the then-governor general, William Bentick. The ban was challenged in the
courts, and the matter went to the Privy Council in London, but was upheld in
1832. Other company territories also banned it shortly after. Although the
original ban in Bengal was fairly uncompromising, later in the century British
laws include provisions that provided mitigation for murder when "the
person whose death is caused, being above the age of 18 years, suffers death or
takes the risk of death with his own consent".
Emergence of women organization in India
Pre-Independence
-
A unique feature of the Indian women’s
movement is the fact that early attempts at women’s emancipation were set in
motion by men. Social reformers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Maharishi Karve and
Swami Dayanand Saraswati challenged the traditional subordination of women,
encouraged widow remarriage and promoted female education and equality in
matters of religion, among other issues. Mahila
mandals organised by Hindu reformist organisations such as the
Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samaj encouraged women to step out of the confines of
their homes and interact with outsiders.
Pandita Ramabai, one of the pioneers of the
feminist movement, with the help of Justice Ranade set up the Arya Mahila Samaj in 1882. She
envisaged creating a support network for newly educated women through weekly
lectures and lessons at homes, where women could learn and gain confidence
through interactions.
Women’s auxiliaries of general reform
associations also served as a platform for women to discuss social issues,
express opinions and share experiences. The Bharata Mahila Parishad of the
National Social Conference was the most prominent among such fora. Though the
NSC was formed at the third meeting of the Indian National Congress in 1887,
the Mahila Parishad was launched
only in 1905.
All the above efforts significantly impacted
the social status of women. Early attempts at encouraging women to communicate
outside their families and local committees thus, stemmed from the broader
social reform movement and efforts to ameliorate the conditions of women.
But a major
shortcoming of the movement at this juncture was that it was essentially
elitist in character. The reforms were intended for privileged upper caste
women and did not take up the cause of the vast masses of poor and working
class women. Also, male‐guided
organisations still saw the household as the woman’s first priority and did not
make efforts to employ education as an instrument to enhance their
participation in society.
The early nineteenth century also saw concerted efforts
towards education of women. Schools and educational institutions promoting
female public education mushroomed across the country.
The pre‐Independence period saw women’s issues linked to
the nationalist agenda at various junctures. Political participation of women,
calling for a redefinition of conventional gender roles, was the hallmark of
this phase. Women began openly demonstrating their opposition to foreign
control by supporting civil disobedience actions and other forms of protest
against the British. Opportunities to organise and participate in agitations
gave women the much‐needed confidence and a chance to develop their leadership
skills. Cutting across communal and religious barriers, women associated
themselves with larger problems of society and opposed sectarian issues such as
communal electorates. Political consciousness among women grew, owing to a
general understanding that women’s issues could not be detached from the political
climate of the country.
During this period, the earliest women’s organisations
formed within the historical context of the social reform movement and the
nationalist movement were the Women’s
India Association (WIA), National Council of Women in India (NCWI), and the All
India Women’s Conference (AIWC) in 1917, 1925 and 1927 respectively. Each
of these organisations highlighted the importance of education in women’s
development.
The WIA, founded by Margaret Cousins in Madras, worked
extensively for the social and educational emancipation of women. Associated
with the Theosophical Society, it encouraged non‐sectarian religious activity
and did creditable work in promoting literacy, setting up shelters for widows
and providing relief for disaster victims.
Women in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta (now Mumbai, Chennai
and Kolkata) through networks developed during World War I work, linked their
associations together and created the NCWI in 1925. A national branch of the
International Council of Women, its most prominent member was Mehribai Tata,
who fiercely campaigned against passive charity and urged men to support female
education.
The most important of the women’s organisations of the time – the AIWC –
first met in Poona in 1927. Though its initial efforts were directed towards
improving female education, its scope later expanded to include a host of
women’s issues such as women’s franchise, inheritance rights, to name a few.
Post-Independence-
The
Constitution of India drafted in 1950 granted equal rights to men and women. A
slew of rights such as the right to vote, right to education, right to entry
into public service and political offices brought in complacency among women’s
groups. Though scores of women took part in the sharecroppers’ movement in Telangana
in Andhra Pradesh in 1948‐50
and in anti‐alcohol movements in Uttarakhand in the 1960s, this period saw
limited activity in the area of women’s rights.
In post-independent India, the
women’s movement was divided, as the common enemy, foreign rule, was no longer
there. Many of the Muslim members went over to Pakistan. Some of the women
leaders now formally joined the Indian National Congress and held positions of
power as Ministers, Governors and Ambassadors. Free India’s Constitution gave
universal adult franchise and by the mid fifties India had fairly liberal laws
concerning women. Most of the demands of the women’s movement had been met and
there seemed few issues left to organize around. Women’s organizations now saw
the problem as one of implementation and consequently there was a lull in the
women’s movement.
Women dissatisfied with the
status quo joined struggles for the rural poor and industrial working class
such as the Tebhaga movement in Bengal, the Telangana movement in Andhra Pradesh
or the Naxalite movement. Shahada, which acquired its name from the area in
which it occurred, in Dhulia district in Maharashtra, was a tribal landless
labourers’ movement against landlords. Women played a prominent role and led
demonstrations, invented and shouted militant slogans and mobilized the masses.
As women’s militancy developed, gender based issues were raised. There was an
anti alcohol agitation as men used to get drunk and beat their wives. Women
went round villages breaking pots in liquor dens.
Meanwhile in Ahmedabad, what
was probably the first attempt at a women’s trade union was made with the
formation of the Self Employed Women’s
Association (SEWA) at the initiative of Ela Bhat in 1972. Its aim was to
improve the condition of poor women who worked in the unorganized sector by
providing training, technical aids and collective bargaining. Based on Gandhian
ideals, SEWA has been a remarkable success.
The anti price rise agitation
launched in Bombay in 1973 by Mrinal Gore of the Socialist Party and Ahalya
Rangnekar of the CPI-M, together with others, mobilized women of the city
against inflation. The movement grew rapidly becoming a mass movement for
consumer protection. So many housewives got involved in the movement that a new
form of protest was invented by women coming out in the streets and beating
thalis (metal plates) with rolling pins.
The Nav Nirman movement, originally a students movement in Gujarat
against soaring prices, black marketing and corruption launched in 1974 was
soon joined by thousands of middle class women. Their method of protest ranged
from mass hunger strike, mock funerals and prabhat pheris.
The Chipko movement got its
name from the Hindi word ‘chipko’ which means to cling. This clinging to trees
was a particular action people used to save trees, which were crucial to their
lives, from being felled. The movement began in 1973 in the small hilly town of
Gopeshwar in Chamoli district when representatives from a sports factory came
to cut trees. Women joined the movement in 1974 and with their united strength
prevented the contractor from cutting trees. It was the women of Chipko who
brought to public attention the importance of trees and the need to protect the
environment.
The publication of Towards
Equality, the Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in 1974 and the
United Nation’s declaration of 1975 as the International Year of Women
beginning with the First World Conference on Women in Mexico, generated a new
interest in and debate on women’s issues.The data collected by CSW Report after
exhaustive countrywide investigation revealed that the de jure equality granted
by the Indian Constitution had not been translated into reality and large
masses of women had remained unaffected by the rights granted to them more than
25 years earlier. It provided the intellectual foundation of a new women’s
movement that found expression both in activism and the academia. The 1970s and
1980s witnessed the growth of numerous women’s groups that took up issues such
as dowry deaths, bride burning, rape, sati and focused on violence against
women. They stressed the sexual oppression of women in a way previous reform or
feminist groups had never done. They questioned the patriarchal assumptions
underlying women’s role in the family and society based on the biological sex
differences implying a “natural” separation of human activities by gender
differentials, the public political sphere being the male domain and the
private familial sphere as that of the female which eventually translates into
a domination of male over female. It was held that based on such a dichotomous
perception of male and female roles, women find themselves in a secondary role
which may sometimes lead to humiliation, torture and violence even within the
family. Such a questioning of the patriarchal character of the family and
society was not evident in the earlier phase of the women’s movement. Thus they
held that the first step towards women’s liberation was to become aware of such
patriarchal assumptions based on biological sex differences and roles.
Some of the earliest
autonomous women’s groups were the Progressive
Organization of Women (POW, Hyderabad), the Forum Against Rape (now redefined
as Forum Against Oppression of Women), Stree Sangharsh and Samata (Delhi).
Among the first campaigns that women’s groups took up was the struggle against
rape in 1980.
The amended law was enacted in
1983 after long discussions with women’s groups. Since then, women’s groups
have lobbied again to have the law further changed to make it more stringent
and have also fought for an implementation machinery to be set up without which
the law is less effective than it was intended to be.
The POW in Hyderabad organized
new and fresh protests against dowry. In the late 1970s, Delhi became the focus
of the movement against dowry and the violence inflicted on women in the
marital home. Groups which took up the campaign included ‘Stree Sangharsh’ and ‘Mahila
Dakshita Samiti’. Later, a joint front called the ‘Dahej Virodhi Chetna Mandal’ (organization for creating consciousness
against dowry) was formed under whose umbrella a large number of organizations
worked.
The anti dowry campaign
attempted to bring social pressure to bear on offenders so that they would be
isolated in the community in which they lived. Experience in the campaign
revealed the need for counseling, legal aid and advice to women. It was in
response to this that legal aid and counseling centers were set up in different
parts of the country. Women’s organizations also succeeded in getting the dowry
law changed.
Sati was declared a punishable
offence in 1829. Yet in 1987, Roop Kanwar, a young widow, was forcibly put on
the funeral pyre of her husband and burnt to death in a village in Rajasthan.
Women’s groups rose in protest and declared this to be a cold-blooded murder.
They demanded a new Sati Prevention Bill.
There were several campaigns
in the eighties relating to women’s rights. Among them was a campaign, in 1985,
in support of the Supreme Court judgment in the divorce case where Shah Bano, a
Muslim woman, had petitioned the Court for maintenance from her husband under
Section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Act and the Court granted her demand. The
orthodox Muslims, however, protested against interference with their personal law.
In 1986, the government introduced the Muslim Women’s (Protection of Rights in
Divorce) Bill denying Muslim women redress under Section 125. Women’s
associations protested against this outside Parliament. Over the years it has
become clear that changing laws alone means little unless there is a will to
implement them and unless there is education and literacy which makes women
aware of their rights and allows them to exercise them effectively. It was this
realization that has led the women’s movement to take up in a more concerted
manner programmes of legal literacy and education, gender sensitization of
textbooks and media.
Women’s studies as an
identifiable area of teaching and research emerged in the 1960s in the United
States, although the intellectual antecedents go back further, most noticeably
in the works of Simone de Beauvoir and Virginia Wolf. The contemporary women’s
movement provided the impetus for the establishment and growth of women’s
studies across disciplines. Women’s studies spread to India slowly at first and
then more rapidly following the UN Mid Decade Conference in Copenhagen in 1980.
The Indian Association of Women’s Studies established in 1981 is an institution
of women academics and activists involved in research and teaching. In the last
three decades a large number of books and journals by and on women have
appeared. There are publishing houses that bring out books exclusively on
feminist subjects. Efforts are being made to prepare reading and teaching
material with a feminist perspective. A number of universities and colleges
have women’s study centers.
All the major political
parties, the Congress, BJP, CPI, CPI (M) have their women’s wings. The new
women’s groups declare themselves to be feminist. They are dispersed with no
central organization but they have built informal networks among themselves.
Their political commitment is more leftist than liberal. The Indian women’s
movement is often accused of being urban basedand middle class in character.
While the urban feminists are more visible and articulate, rural women have
also mobilized themselves.
While street level protests
and demonstrations give the women’s movement visibility, this is clearly not
enough. What is needed is attention to basic survival needs such as food, safe
drinking water, sanitation and housing. Women need education, health care,
skill development and employment; safety in the home and at work. The last few
years have seen the broadening and expansion of the movement to take in a whole
range of issues.
Women’s organizations not only
lead campaigns and march on the streets, they, including the older ones such as
AIWC, YWCA and others, run shelters for battered wives and women who are
victims of violence and provide counseling and legal aid. They conduct training
workshops on various issues. They also help in forming self help groups to make
women economically self - reliant. The success of the women’s movement has not
been in the number of women appointed to office or in the number of laws passed
but in the fact that it has brought about a new consciousness on the entire
question of women in Indian society.
There would have been no
women’s movement in India if Indian men in the nineteenth century had not been
concerned with modernizing women’s roles.
They focused on certain issues such as sati, child marriage, condition
of widows, education, etc., because they saw the world through the prism of
their own class and caste. Their efforts led to bringing women of their own
families into the new world created by colonial rule. Women came out and
created a space for themselves. They started organizations of their own, first
at the local, then at the national level. They were motivated by liberal
feminist ideas and the belief that education, granting of political rights, and
legislative reforms would improve women’s position. They fought for the country’s
freedom and believed that independence from foreign rule would remove obstacles
in women marching forward. In the second phase, the women’s movement was more
radical and challenged patriarchy.
Yet in terms of numbers, few
women, even now, are involved in the women’s movement and one should not
exaggerate its impact. The large majority of India women still live below the
poverty line leading miserable wretched lives. While there have been scattered
and sporadic examples of women’s outraged protests against rape, dowry deaths
or sati, women have not been able to mobilize themselves enough to exert
political pressure and focus attention on those problems which are today
affecting their role and status. Despite this long history of women’s struggle,
Indian women are one of the most backward today in terms of literacy,
longevity, maternal mortality, female work participation and sex ratio.
Changing societal attitudes
and women’s own self perceptions which are deeply rooted in our psyche and
social structure is not easy. For every step forward that the movement takes,
there may be a possible backlash, a possible regression. History shows that
though the struggle for women’s rights is long and hard, it is a struggle that
must be waged and won. The women’s movement thus has a long way to go in its
struggle for bringing about new values, a new morality and a new egalitarian
relationship.
